LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Qtua 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING 
RAILWAYS. 


SUPPLEMENT  TO 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS 


BY 

MARSHALL    M.   KIRKMAN. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE 

WORLD  RAILWAY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 


OF  THE 

f  UNIVERSITY    1 


NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO: 

THE  WORLD  RAILWAY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 
1903 


COPYRIGHT    BY 

THE  WORID  RAILWAY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1902,  1903. 

Also  enttred  at  Stationer's  Hall,  London,  England 
A II  rights  reserved. 


THE     HENNEBCRRY     COMPANY 

PRINTERS....  BINDERS....  CHICAGO 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION, „ rA°19 

CHAPTER  I.    Railway  evolution.    The  development  of  the 

railway  illustrated, 21 

CHAPTER  II.    The  reconnoissance— the  first  step  in  railway 

construction, * 47 

CHAPTER  III.    The  preliminary  survey — the  second  step  in 

railway  construction, 68 

CHAPTER  IV.    The  location— the  third  step  in  railway  con- 
struction,     83 

CHAPTER  V.    Construction, 90 

CHAPTER  VI.    Standards  of  construction  and  material,   .    .  147 

CHAPTER  VII.    Constructing  track, 297 

CHAPTER  VIII.    Maintenance  of  way, 323 

CHAPTER  IX.    Wrecks, ; 441 

CHAPTER  X.  Maintenance  of  bridges  and  buildings,  .  .  .455 
CHAPTER  XI.  Construction  and  maintenance  accounts,  .  477 
CHAPTER  XII.  Maintenance  and  operation.  What  cost  is 

dependent  upon, 480 

CHAPTER  XIII.  Maintenance.  Fixed  operating  expenses,  .  610 
CHAPTER  XIV.  Maintenance.  Cost  of  operating  affected 

by  facilities, 524 

CHAPTER  XV.     Maintenance.    Things  that  enter  into  the 
maintenance  of  a  railroad 580 


OH) 


APPENDIXES. 

B.  (1)  Relation  the  various  items  of  track  labor  bear  to 
each  other.   .        .        ._/.-.        .  -    .     .  .  .  559 
(2)    Relation  that  various  items  of  track  expenses  bear 

to  total  track  expenses.       -        .        .        .       ..        .        .  559 

C.  (1)  Relation  various   classes   of    maintenance  bear   to 
total  cost  of  maintenance    ......        .    «    .  560 

(2)    Relation  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  property 

of  a  road  to  all  other  operating  expenses  .'       .        560 

D.  Percentage    of   the   total    cost    of    operating   due   to 
maintenance  of  organization  and  the  prevention  of  the 
destruction  of  the  property  from  natural  causes     .        .  561 

E.  Gauges  of    railroads  that  are  or  have  been  in  use  in 
different  countries      .         . :      ...        .        .        .  562 

F.  Quantity  of  material  required  to  lay  one  mile  of  rail- 
road track  on  the  basis  named    .  .       ..        ,          563 

G.  Table  showing  increase  in  weight  of  locomotives  from 
1880  to  1900  .  >     ..'       •  564 

H.   Detailed  rules  governing  the  location  of  railways.  .        .  565 

/.  Detailed  rules  governing  surveys  and  construction  of 
railways  and  lists  of  supplies  required  in  the  field  .  .  583 

J.  Detailed  rules  governing  construction  of  track  of  rail- 
ways and  various  illustrations  of  rail  sections,  specifica- 
tions and  tables,  giving  details  in  regard  to  material  used 
in  construction  ?.  .  .  .  »  .  .  •  .  597 

K.  Table  setting  forth  modern  authorities  on  the  location, 
construction,  track  and  maintenance  of  railways  .  .  629 

L.    Bridges  and  buildings— Rules,  tables  and  data        .       .  644 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


no.  PAOE. 

A        Jessop's  Cast  Iron  Fish  Bellied  Rail 24 

B         The  First  Rail  Chair,  A.  D.  1797 24 

C        LeCann's  Tram  Rail,  A.  D.  1801 25 

Wyatt's  Hexagonal  Rail,  A.  D.  1802 25 

Tram  Rail,  A.  D.  1803 25 

Carlisle's  Wrought  (Rolled)  Iron  Rail,  A.  D.  1811 25 

Losh  &  Stephenson's  Edge  Rail,  A.  D.  1816 25 

D        Tram  Rail  with  Stone  Supports,  upon  which  Trevit- 

hick's  first  locomotive  ran : 27 

E         Birkenshaw's  Wrought  Iron  Rail,  A.  D.  1820 28 

Hetton  Rail,  A.  D.  1824 28 

George  Stephenson's  Fish  Belly  Rail,  A.  D.  1829 28 

Rail,  Designed  by  Robert  L.  Stevens,  A.  D.  1830 28 

F         Standard  Track,  Camden  &  Amboy  R.  R.,  A.  D.  1837.. .  30 
"         Track    of  Camden  &  Amboy  R.  R.,  Rails  Laid  on 

Piling  Through  Marshes,  A.  D.  1837 30 

"         Stevens'  Rail,  A.  D.  1841 30 

G        Stone  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  A.  D.  1833  81 

Wooden  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  A.  D.  1837 31 

H        Street  Railway  Construction 32 

I         English  Fish  Belly  Rail,  A.  D.  1832 84 

•••         Joint  Chair  and  Wedge,  A.  D.  1833 85 

Stone  Block  Rail  and  Joint  Tongue,  A.  D.  1831 35 

J         Stevens'  Rail,  Supported  by  Cast  Iron  Chair,  A.D.  1837  36 

Ring,  Joint  and  Wedge,  West  Jersey  R.  R 36 

Wooden  Joint  Block,  A.  D.  1860 36 

Double  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1857 37 

"         Erie  Rail  with  Ends  Stamped  for  Adams'   Cast  Iron 

Bracket  Splice,  A.  D,  1857 .x 37 

"         Single  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1855 37 

"         Double  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1856 87 

K        Plain  Splice  Bar,  A.D.  1870 38 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1868 88 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.D.  1875 38 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1879 88 

Angle  Splice  Bar,  A.  D.  1880 38 

L        An  Early  Frog  Pattern 39 

(vli) 


viii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

L        Frogs,  A.  D.  1825 39 

«'         Staple  iron  used  as  makeshift  for  frog,  A.  D.  1831 39 

Frog,  A.  D.  1835 40 

Wood's  Kail  Frog,  A.  D.  1859 40 

M        Switches  in  Colliery  Railroads,  A.  D.  1825 ...  41 

N         Section  of  English  Permanent  Way 41 

O        Steel  Tie.     London  &  Northwestern  Ry.,  A.  D.  1885. .  42 

Metal  "Pot"  Tie.    India,  A.  D.  1889 42 

Metal  Track,  Queensland,  A.  D.  1889 42 

Metal  Track,  Midland  Ry.,  A.  D.  1889 42 

1         Metal  Track,   London  &  Northwestern  Ry.,   A.   D. 

1889 42 

Metal  Track,  Elferfield  Ry.,  Germany,  A.  D.  1889 43 

Metal   Track,  Great  Central  Ry.   of  Belgium,  A.  D. 

1889 43 

»         Thick  Rectangular  Rail,  A.  D.  1838 43 

Latrabe's  Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1841 43 

First  Rail  Rolled  in  America,  A.  D.  1844 44 

92-lb.  Rail,  A.  D.  1848 44 

T  Rail,  A.  D.  1850 44 

Pear  Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1853 44 

Pear  Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1855 45 

Pear  Headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1855 45 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855 45 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855 45 

Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855.... 45 

*         Compound  Rail,  A.  D.  1855 45 

Box  Rail,  A.  D.  1855 46 

Barlow's  "Saddle  Back"  Rail,  A.  D.  1856 46 

'         Triangular  Stringer  Capped  with  Iron,  A.  D.  1857 46 

1.) 

2.  v  Aneroid  Barometers  for  Measuring  Altitude 49 

3.  ) 

4.  Engineer's  Pocket  Instruments 50 

g    \  Prismatic  Compass  with  Clynometer  Attachment.. .  .50,  51 

7.  Lock's  Hand  Level 51 

8.  Abney's  Hand  Level  and  Clynometer 52 

9.  Field  Glasses 52 

10.     Pedometer 53 

lla,  lib,  lie.    Odometer 54,  55 

12.  Engineers'  Transit  with  Level  and  Vertical  Arc 59 

13.  "          "         "         "    Gradienter  Attach- 
ment   60 

14.  Engineers'  Chain 81 

15.  Engineers'  Improved  Tape  Chain 61 

16.  Steel  Tape 62 

17.  Ranging  Rods  or  Poles 62 

18.  Chester-man's  Metallic  Tape 63 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  ix 

19.  Engineers'  Scale 63 

20.  Protractor GA 

21.  Transparent  Protractor  witi  R.  R.  Curves  64 

22.  Engineers' Y  Level 64 

23.  Philadelphia  Leveling  Rod 65 

24.  Leveling  Instrument  and  Gradienter  for  Topograph- 

ical Work 66 

25.  Clynometer  or  Slope  Instrument '.'.'.  66 

26.  Form  of  Cross  Section  Book 93 

26a.  Form  of  Quantity  Book 93 

27.  Graders'  Plow 96 

28.  Drag  Scraper 96 

29.  "          "         with  Runners 97 

30.  "         "  "    Bottom  Plate 97 

31.  Back  Scraper 97 

32.  Two  Wheeled  Scraper 98 

33.  "  "  "        98 

34.  "  ••  ««        99 

36.  Side  View  of  Grader,  ditcher  and  wagon  loader 99 

37.  Rear    "      "        "  "         "        "  "      100 

39.  Four  Wheeled  Scraper 101 

40.  "  "  "        101 

41.  Two  Wheeled  Dump  Cart 102 

42.  End,  Dump  Wagon 102 

43.  Bottom,  "          " 103 

44.  Iron  End,  Dump  Cart 103 

45.  Embankment;  built  full  width  at  Grade  and  out   to 

the  Slope  Stakes 105 

46.  Right  and  Left  Hand  Dump  Cars 107 

48.  Rotary  Dump  Car 107 

49.  View    showing    the   method    of  dumping  a   rotary 

Dump  Car 108 

61.     Plan    and   Side   and    End   Elevations   of    a   Steam 

Shovel 109 

54.  Steam  Shovel  Car 110 

55.  Hard  Pan  Plow 110 

56.  Showing  the  Slopes  for  an  Earth  Cut Ill 

61.  Example  of  Cristina  Method  of  Tunneling 114 

62.  Example  of  American  System 116 

63.  Air  Compressor 117 

65.     Rock  Drills  for  Tunnel  Work 117 

68     Ventilation  of  Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel 120 

69-70.  Retaining  Walls 121 

71.  Showing  How  a  Cut  can  be  the  Full  Width  at  Grade  and 

the  Material  Taken  Out  at  Slope  Stakes,  and  yet  all 
the  Material  will  not  be  Excavated 1 

72.  Steam  Pile  Driver 125 

72a.   Form  of  Force  Report 130 

726.  Form  of  Estimate  Book 131 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

73.     View  Overhaul 133 

*74.         "  "         133 

76.     Track  Laying  or  Iron  Car 135 

76.  Holnian's  Track  Laying  Machine 138 

77.  Harris'          "  "  "         140 

81.  Earth  Ballast— Galveston,  Houston  &  Henderson  Ry..  155 

82.  Gravel    "  "               "                     "            "  ..  156 

83.  Earth      "  Illinois  Central  Railroad 156 

84.  Crushed  Stone,  2  inches  Diameter,  on  Quarry  Spauls 

4  to  6  inches  diameter— N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R  R.  R 156 

85.  Ballast,  Crushed  Stone   2>£  inches  Diameter,  Penn. 

R.R 157 

86.  Rock  Cut  Stone  Ballast  2#  inches  Diameter,  C.  &  P. 

D.  Branch  of  Penn.  R.  R 157 

87.  Gravel  Ballast,  A.  T.  &  S.  F.  Railway 158 

88.  "  "        C.&N.W.  ••       158 

89.  Burnt  Clay  Ballast,  C.  B.  &  Q.  R.  R 159 

90.  Hoosac  Tunnel,  Finished  Masonry  in  Soft  Ground 159 

91.  Section  of  Tunnel  at  Port  Perry,  P.  V.  &  C.  Ry 160 

92.  «•        •'        "       on  the  Insbruck  Bozen  Line,  Aus- 

tria    161 

93.  "        "        "       used    by   Government  Railway  of 

East  India 163 

94.  Section  of  Iron  Tunnel  under  the  St.  Clair  River  used 

by  the  Grand  Trunk  Ry 163 

95.  Morrell  Metal  Tie 194 

96.  Metal  Tie  used  on  the  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R 195 

97.  Wolhaupter  Tie  Plate  with  Rib  to  Resist  the  Lateral 

Motion  of  the  Rail.  197 

98.  Goldie  Claw  Tie  Plate  with  Lug  to  prevent  the  Lateral 

Movement  of  the  Rail .  197 

99.  The  C.  A.  C.  Tie  Plate 198 

100.  The  Servis  Tie  Plate 198 

101.  Wolhaupter  Arch  Girder  Tie  Plate 198 

102.  Track  Spikes  215 

103.  Angle  Bars  used  on  a  7o  pound  Rail  of  American  So- 

ciety of  Civil  Engineers'  Standard 217 

104.  Continuous  Rail  Joint 217 

105.  Weber  Rail  Joint 218 

10<*.     Truss      "        "     218 

107.  Common  Sense  Rail  Joint 218 

108.  C.  &  N.-W.  Ry  Joint  Base  Plate  used  to  give  lateral 

Stiffness  to  the  Rail 219 

109.  Track  Bolts 222 

110.  Styles  of  "Verona"  Nut  Locks 222 

111.  The  Elastic  Self-Locking  Steel  Nut  "National" 223 

112.  Joint  Spring  Nut  Lock 223 

113.  Shows  how  a  Rail  Brace  will  fail  to  support  the  Rail 

where  it  cuts  into  the  Tie  or  the  Rail  Brace  is  not 
properly  designed 224 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xi 

114.  Forged  Steel  Rail  Braces 224 

115.  Stub  Switch  showing  Head  Blocks  and  Ground  Throw 

for  Moving  Switch  Rails 225 

116.  Split  Switch  with  Pony  Switch  Stand  suitable   for 

Yards ,  226 

120.  Rigid  Filled  Frog. . . 

121.  «•     Chuck  Filled  Frog .'.'.'.'  '  228 

122.  "     Steel  Clamp  Frog ......    22S 

123.  Rigid  Plate  Frog 229 

124.  Spring  Rail  Frog  with  Anchor  Block . .  229 

125.  Eureka  Spring  Rail  Frog 230 

126.  Movable  Point  Crossing 231 

129.  Crossing  Frogs,  Angle  60°  to  90° 232 

130.  "  ••  "      45°to60° .'  232 

131.  "  "      with  Extra  Heavy  Angle  Irons 233 

132.  for  Steam  and  Street  Railroads 234 

133.  Jump  Crossing  Frogs  for  Steam  and  Street  Railroads.  234 

134.  Ramapo  Safety   Switch  Stand  as  it  appears    when 

Half  Thrown  by  Hand 235 

135.  Ramapo  Safety    Switch  Stand  as  it  appears   when 

Half  Thrown  by  Wheels  Passing  Through  the  Switch  236 

136.  Three  Throw  Switch  Stand  23? 

187.     Automatic  Parallel  Ground  Throw  Switch  Stand 238 

138.  Low  Pony  Switch  Stand 238 

139.  "        "  "     with  Safety  Bottom  Cap 238 

140.  Ground  Throw  Switch  Stand  with  Weighted  Lever. . .  239 

141.  Designs  for  Targets  or  Signals  to  be  used  on  Switch 

Stands 239 

142.  Target  Tripod  for  Switch  Stands 240 

143.  Haley  Semi  Steel  Bumping  Post 241 

145.  Ellis  Bumping  Post 242 

146.  Through  Plate  Girder  Bridge 243 

147.  Perspective  View  of  Through  Plate  Girder  Bridge 243 

148.  Through  Plate  Truss 243 

149.  Deck  Pratt  Truss 245 

150.  Through  Warren  Truss 245 

151.  Deck  Warren  Truss 245 

1 52.  Whipple  Truss  or  Double  Intersection  Pratt 247 

153.  Modified  Form  of  Warren  Truss 247 

154.  Single    Lattice   Girder— Modified   Form    of   Warren 

T?uss 247 

155.  Double  Lattice    Girder— Modified  Form  of   Warren 

Truss 249 

156.  Deck  Baltimore  Truss— Modified  Form  of  Pratt  Truss.  249 

157.  Through  Baltimore  Truss— Modified  Form  of  Pratt 

Truss 249 

158.  Long  Span  Baltimore  Truss— Modified  Form  of  War- 

ren Truss 251 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

159.  Long  Span  Baltimore  Truss— also  known  as  the  Arched 

Truss,  the  Bow  String  Truss,  and  the  Cainelback 
Truss 251 

160.  Another  Modification  of  the  Warren  Truss  for  Long 

Spans 253 

161.  Duluth— Superior  Bridge 253 

162.  Bob  Tailed  Draw  Bridge,  Modified  Form  of  Warren 

Truss,  Short  Span  Counter- Weighted 255 

163.  Scherzer  Rolling  Lift  Bridge 255 

165.  Cantilever  Bridge 255 

166.  Pile  Trestle  Bridge 256 

167.  Framed  Trestle 256 

168.  Stone  Arched  Culvert 257 

169.  Cast  Iron  Pipe  Culvert  without  Wing  Walls 257 

170.  "        "       "          "        with  "         "     258 

171.  Open  Culvert 258 

172.  Pump  for  a  Deep  Well 260 

173.  Common  Form  of  Setting  up  a  Pumping  Plant  for  a 

Water  Station 261 

174.  Combined  Gasoline  Engine  and  Pump 262 

175.  Design  for  Railroad  Pump   House  and  Machinery, 

using  a  Gasoline  Engine 263 

176.  Water  Tank  supported  by  Wooden  Posts  or  Bents....  264 

179.  Automatic  Stand  Pipe  or  Water  Column 265 

180.  Track  Tank 266 

181.  Plan  of  a  Coaling  Station  where  Buckets  are  used 268 

182.  Transverse  Section  of  a  Clinton  Coaling  Station 269 

183.  Cast  Iron  Turntable  made  by  William  Sellers  &  Co. . .  271 

184.  Wrought  Iron  Turntable  made   by  the  King  Iron 

Bridge  Co 272 

185.  A  Turntable  Center  used  by  Wm.  Sellers  &  Co 272 

186.  A  Special  Sixteen  Roller  Center  for  Turntables 273 

187.  Small  Frame  Depot  with  Living  Rooms  on  Second 

Floor 275 

188.  Small  Frame  Depot 276 

189.  Frame  Depot  for  a  Moderate  Sized  Town  277 

190.  Outbuildings  for  Small  Depots 278 

191.  Plan  of  a  Brick  Passenger  Depot 280 

192.  ••  "StockYard 281 

193.  "  "  Roundhouse  and  Shops 282 

194.  "  "  Brick  Storehouse  for  Supplies 283 

195.  "  "  Storehouse  for  Sand 284 

196.  Elevation  of  a  Bent  of  an  Air  Hoist  Ash  Pit 285 

198.  Train  Signal  operated  by  the  Station  Agent 288 

199.  Automatic  Electric  Signal 288 

200.  Lever  operated  by  the  Engine  to  open  and  close  the 

Electric  Circuit 289 

201.  Block  Signal,  Operated  by  the  Telegraph  Operator. . .  289 

202.  Switch  Lamp,  Upper  Draught 290 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

203.  Switch  Lamp,  Lower  Draught 290 

204.  Semaphore  Signal  Lamp,  Upper  Draught 291 

205.  Barbed  Wire  Fence 292 

206.  Page  Woven  Wire  Fence 292 

207.  Jones'  Wire  Fence 292 

208.  Flexible  Clamp,  used  in  making  Jones'  Wire  Fence. . .  293 

209.  Cyclone  Wire  Fence  and  the  Machine  for  Making  it.. .  293 

210.  Terra  cotta  Base  Iron  Posts  for  Fences  and  Signs 294 

211.  Cattle  Guard 295 

212.  Climax  Stock  Guard 295 

213.  Sheffield  Cattle  Guard 295 

214.  Railroad  Track  Scales 296 

216.  Plan  of  Tracks  for  a  small  Country  Town 300 

217.  Plan  of  Tracks  for  a  Junction  of  Two  railway  Systems  300 

218.  Plan  of  Tracks  for  a  Junction  of  a  Branch  with  the 

Main  Line 301 

219.  Plan  of  Tracks  and  Buildings  for  a  Yard  where  Loco- 

motives are  changed  and  where  the  grades  alter,  thus 
causing  a  change  in  the  Tonnage  of  Trains  each  side 
of  the  Yard 301 

220.  Combination  Slip  Switch  Crossing,  with  Adjustable  Tie 

Bars  and  Rigid  Center  Frogs,  Operated  from  a  Sin- 
gle Switch  Stand  with  Rocker  Shaft  Connection 302 

221.  View  of  a  Three  Throw  Split  Switch 303 

222.  Arrangement  of  the  Switch  Points  for  a  Three  Throw 

Split  Switch 304 

228.     Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  6;  Rigid  Frog  6  Feet 

Long 305 

224.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  7;  Rigid  Frog  7  Feet 

Long 305 

225.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  7;  Rigid  Frog  12  Feet 

Long 305 

226.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  8;  Rigid  Frog  8  Feet 

Long „ 307 

227.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  9;  Rigid  Frog  9  Feet 

Long 307 

228.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  9;  Rigid  Frog  12  Feet 

Long '. 307 

229.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  10;  Rigid  Frog  10  Feet 

Long 309 

230.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  11;  Rigid  Frog  11  Feet 

Long 309 

231.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  7;  Spring  Rail  Frog  15 

Feet  Long  309 

232.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  8J;  Spring  Rail  Frog  15 

FletLong...: 310 

233.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  9;  Spring  Rail  Frog  15 

Feet  Long , 310 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

234.  Single  Throw  Split  Switch  No.  10;  Spring  Rail  Frog  15 

Feet  Long 310 

235.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  6  Rigid  Frog  6 

Feet  Long 311 

236.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  7  Rigid  Frog  7 

Feet  Long 311 

237.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  7  Rigid  Frog  12 

Feet  Long 311 

238.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  8  Rigid  Frog  8 

Feet  Long 312 

239.  Three  1  hrow  Split  Switch  with  No.  9  Rigid  Frog  9 

Feet  Long 312 

240.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  9  Rigid  Frog  12 

Feet  Long 312 

241.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  10  Rigid  Frog  10 

Feet  Long 313 

242.  Three  Throw  Split  Switch  with  No.  11  Rigid  Frog  11 

Feet  Long 313 

243.  Plan  of  a  Stub  Switch 313 

244.  Plan  illustrating  the  use  of  a  Cross-Over  or  Switch 

connecting  the  Two  Main  Line  Tracks  of  a  Double 
Track  Road 314 

245.  Plan  of  a  Cross-Over 314 

246.  Derailing  Switch  used  to  prevent  a  collision  between 

a  Train  on  the  Main  Line  and  Cars  running  off  a 
Side  Track  onto  the  Main  Line 315 

247.  Sand  Track;  used  to  check  the  movement  of  Cars  on 

a  grade  or  when  propelled  by  a  high  wind  from 
running  off  a  Siding  to  the  Main  Line  Track 315 

248.  Derail  Switch  Point  used  in  connection  with  Inter- 

locking System  of  Guard  Crossings 315 

249.  Standard  Guard  Rail  with  Division  Blocks  and  Bolts 

and  Rail  Braces 317 

250.  Guard  Rail  with  the  Hook  Guard  Rail  Clamp 318 

251.  Guard  Rail  with  the  Sampson  Adjustable  Guard  Rail 

Clamp 318 

252.  Crossing  Frogs  used  where  two  tracks  cross  at  an 

acute  angle 319 

253.  Combination  Slip  Switch  and  Movable  Center  Points 

Switches  and  Movable  Center  Points  operated  by 
one  Switch  Stand  319 

258.  Sectional  Perspective  View  of  Gates  Stone  Crusher. . . .  334 

259.  Gates  Revolving  Screen  for  screening  Crushed  Stone  .  335 

260.  Arrangement  of  Stone  Crusher,  Elevator,  Screen  and 

Storage  Bins  for  a  Railroad  Ballast  Plant 336 

262.  Jenne  Track  Jack  for  heavy  Ballasting,  Surfacing  and 

General  Track  Repairs 337 

263.  Trip  Jack 337 

264.  Adze..  .  340 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xr 

265.  Chopping  Axe 340 

266.  Auger  for  boring   holes  in  the    ground    for    Fence 

Posts 340 

267.  Broom  for  removing  snow  from  Switches,  etc 340 

268.  Brush  Hook  for  cutting  down  small  Saplings 341 

269.  Ballast  or  Napping  Hammer 341 

270.  Ballast  Fork 341 

271.  Brace  and  Bit 341 

272.  Hand  Car  for  Section  Gang 343 

273.  Push  Car,  with  Removable  Side  and  End  Boards 343 

274.  Track  Chisel,  f cr  cutting  Rails,  etc 344 

275.  ClawBars 341 

276.  TrackDrill .  344 

277.  Self  Feeding  Rail  Drill 345 

278.  Hand  File,  for  smoothing  the  ends  of  Rails 345 

279.  Grindstone,  Mounted  and  Treadle 346 

280.  Grub  Hoe,  Mattock,  Pick  Mattock 346 

281.  Hatchets  and  Hand  Axe 346 

282.  Hand  Hammer. . .    347 

283.  Lantern 347 

284.  Lining  Bars,  for  Throwing  Track  347 

285.  Oil  Can  for  Car  Oil 347 

286.  Spring  Oiler  for  oiling  Hand  and  Push  Cars 347 

287.  Track  or  Rail  Punch 848 

288.  Railroad  Padlock  used  with  a  chain  to  Lock  Hand  or 

Push  Cars  by  passing  through  the  two  Wheels  on 
the  same  side  of  the  Car  and  fastening  the  Chain 
by  passing  the  Padlock  hasp  through  two  Links  of 
the  Chain  348 

289.  Pick  for  loosening  Earth,  Clay  or  Hard  Gravel 348 

290.  TampingPick 348 

291.  Rail  Tongs 349 

292.  RailFork 349 

293.  Hand  Saw 349 

294.  Cross  Cut  Saw 349 

295.  Scythes  (a)  Light;  (6)  Heavy 349 

296.  ScytheSnaths 349 

297.  SpiritLevel 350 

298.  Spike  Pullers 350 

299.  SpikeMaul 351 

300.  Stone  Sledge  Hammers 351 

301. .  Railroad  Shovel  for  Tamping,  etc 351 

302.  Scoop  Shovel 351 

303.  Long  Handled  Shovel 351 

304.  Track  Lever  or  Lifting  Bar 351 

305  Huntington's  Track  Gauge 3 

306.  McHenry's  Track  Gauge 35£ 

807.  (a)  Common  Track  Level;  (6)  Duplex  Track  Level ....  352 

(c)  McHenry's  Involute  Track  Level 353 


xv\  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


308.  Tamping  Bar 353 

309.  Torpedo 353 

310.  Railroad  Tool  Chest 353 

311.  Track  Wrench .    354 

312.  Monkey  Wrench 354 

313.  Railroad  Barrows , 354 

315.  Four  Wheel  Eclipse  Light  Weight  Car 355 

316.  Velocipede  Car 356 

318.  The  Ware  Tie  Plate  Surfacer  and  Gauge  365 

319.  American  Railway  Ditching  Machine 370 

320.  Clarke  Jeffrey  Split  Switch 371 

321.  Transit  Split  Switch 373 

322.  Channel  Split  Switch 374 

323.  Lorenz  Safety  Split  Switch 375 

324.  Views  of  Different  Connecting  Rods 375 

325.  Views  of  Different  Kinds  of  Bridle  Rods 376 

326.  Ramapo  Yoked  Frog 876 

327.  Strom  Clamp  or  Yoked  Frog 377 

328.  Frog  with  Wood  Foot  Guard 378 

329.  Frog  with  Iron  Foot  Guards 378 

330.  Right  Hand  Turn  Out 379 

331.  Left  Hand  Turn  Out . .  379 

332.  Right  Hand  Frog 380 

333.  To  take  the  Angle  of  a  Frog 380 

334.  Head  Blocks  or  Head  Chairs  for  Stub  Switches 381 

335.  Bryant  Portable  Rail  Saw 381 

336.  Rail  Bender  and  Straightener 382 

337.  "         "         "  "             with  Horse  Power  At- 
tachment   383 

338.  Plan  and  Elevation  of  a  joint  to  take  up  expansion 

and  contraction  of  Rails 387 

339.  Expansion  Joint  for  a  Bridge  or  difficult  pieces  of 

Track 387 

342.  Plan  and  Section  showing  Piping  necessary  to  n't  a 

flat  Car  to  sprinkle  Track  with  Oil 388 

344.  Rotary  Snow  Plow. , 411 

345.  Inspection  Hand  Car 433 

348.  Double  or  Four  Wheeled  Motor  Car  for  Inspection 

Purposes 433 

349.  35  Ton  Steam  Wrecking  Crane 443 

350.  15  Ton  Double  Mast  Hand  Wrecking  Crane 443 

351.  Automatic  Lowering  Jack 444 

353.  Dudgeon's  Hydraulic  Jack 445 

354.  Tilden  Wrecking  Frog  446 

355.  Palmertou  Wrecking  Frog 446 

356.  Elliot  Car  Replacers  or  Wrecking  Frog 447 

357.  Device  for  Splicing  a  Broken  Chain 450 

358.  Ship  Auger  Bits,  used  by  Bridge  Carpenters 457 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xvii 

359.  Boring    Machine    used   where   Heavy   Timbers   are 

Framed 457 

360.  Crow  Bar 458 

361.  (a)  Pinch  Bar  Without  a  Heel;  (6)  Pinch  Bar  with  a 

Heel 458 

362.  Shackel  Bar  used  for  Drawing  Drift  Bolts 458 

363.  (a)  Single  Block;  (b)  Double  Block;  (c)  Triple  Block. .  458 

364.  Bridge  Gang  Hand  Car 459 

365.  Heavy  Push  Car  for  usa  of  Bridge  Crew 459 

366-     Cant  Hook 460 

367.  Pevey 460 

368.  Timber  Grapples. . .   460 

369.  Hoisting  Crabs  or  Winches,     (a)  Single  Purchase;  (6) 

Double  Purchase 460 

370.  Timber  Trucks  or  Dollys 461 

371.  Files,    (a)  Taper  File;  (6)  Double  End  File 461 

372.  House  Raising  Jack  Screws 461 

373.  Bilge  Pumps,     (a)  Bottom  Suction;  (6)  Side  Suction.. .  462 

377.  Steel  Socket  Bridge  Wrench 462 

378.  Wheel  Wrench 463 

379.  Rail  Section App.  J  609 

380.  Pennsylvania    R.     R.    Standard    Rail   Section    and 

Standard  Joint App,  J  610 

381.  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  R.  R.  Standard 

Rail  Section App.  J  611 

382.  Philadelphia  &  Reading  R.  R.  Rail  Section App.  J  612 

383.  Argentine  Gt.    Western  Ry.    (South  America)    Rail 

Section App,  J  613 

384.  Mexican  Ry.  Co.,  Ltd.,  Standard  Rail  Section.  .App.  J  614 

385.  East  India  Ry.  Co.  India  Standard  Rail  Section  and 

Standard  Joint App.  J  615 


2    Vol.  13 


INTRODUCTION. 

VALUE    OF    WIDE    AND    DIVERSIFIED    EXPERIENCE    IN 
CONSTRUCTING  AND  MAINTAINING-  RAILROADS. 

It  is  not  probable  that  questions  relating  to 
the  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  railways 
will  ever  cease  to  interest  or  excite  controversy. 
The  subject  is  one  of  the  greatest  connected  with 
the  operation  of  railroads  and  is  rendered  more 
complex  because  of  the  dissimilarity  of  condi- 
tions under  which  they  are  built  and  worked. 
The  more  light,  therefore,  that  can  be  thrown  on 
the  subject  the  more  advantageous  to  those  who 
own  or  operate  these  properties. 

Because  of  this  I  do  not  feel  that  excuse  is 
necessary  for  offering  this  book,  apart,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  I  have  already  written  on  the  sub- 
ject in  Volume  III.  of  the  "SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS," 
and  elsewhere  (with  less  particularity)  through- 
out that  work.  To  students  this  added  matter 
will  be  of  interest,  as  it  will  be  to  practical  men 
engaged  in  operating  railroads  who  seek  increased 
knowledge  and  usefulness  from  the  observation 
and  experience  of  others.  By  this  I  do  not  mean 
to  say,  that  what  is  written  here  represents  my 
particular  experience,  because  I  have  never  been 
actively  engaged  in  this  department  of  the  serv- 
ice, but  it  represents  the  experience  and  wisdom 

(19) 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

of  others  who  have  been  thus  occupied,  and  have 
given  the  subject  the  benefit  of  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired.  From  all  this  the  reader  must 
not  infer  that  the  building  and  maintaining  of 
railroads  is  treated  superficially  or  only  partially 
in  this  volume.  On  the  contrary  I  have  taken 
up  the  subject  in  order  and  fully  as  if  nothing 
had  ever  been  said  in  regard  to  it  before.  Many 
books  I  know  have  been  written  on  the  subject 
of  Railway  Construction  by  different  men;  many 
more  will  be  written  hereafter,  and  this  without 
doing  more  than  scratching  the  surface.  The 
subject  is  too  great,  the  problems  too  multiplex 
to  be  exhausted.  Each  writer  however,  will 
throw  new  and  needed  light  on  the  subject  and 
what  each  says  will  therefore  be  useful  to  owner 
and  operator  alike. 

MARSHALL  M.  KIRKMAN. 


CHAPTER  I. 

.RAILWAY     EVOLUTION.       THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE 
RAILWAY  ILLUSTRATED. 

In  depicting  railways,  an  account  of  the  con- 
ditions which  lead  up  to  them  is  interesting,  not 
only  in  itself,  but  as  affording  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  subject.  The  origin  and  growth 
of  property  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  birth  and 
development  of  man.  When  we  describe  the 
condition  of  one  we  describe  the  condition  of  the 
other.  The  two  are  coexistent.  Thus  the  busi- 
ness principles  which  we  observe  to-day  were  in 
the  main  established  by  the  ancients,  who  were 
commercially  inclined  as  we  are,  many  hundreds 
of  years  ago.  In  the  same  way  they  originated 
in  the  main  our  utensils  and  methods.  Wejiave 
simply  developed  their  primary  thoughts. 

In  legal  phraseology  there  are  three  kinds  of 
property — real,  personal  and  mixed.  Railway 
property  partakes  of  all  these  characteristics. 
The  privileges  it  enjoys  are  such  as  are  accorded 
it  under  the  limited  knowledge  we  have  of  its 
uses  and  needs.  Its  rights  are  exceptional  because 
of  its  special  duties  and  responsibilities.  Its 
limitations  are  such  as  attach  to  common  car- 
riers. It  represents  a  new  departure  in  industrial 
effort;  a  progressive  step  greatly  stimulative  of 

(21) 


22         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING    RAILWAYS. 

man's  efforts.  In  other  respects  it  presents  no 
distinguishing  features.  It  furnishes,  however, 
another  instance,  if  one  were  wanting,  of  the 
sympathetic  tie  that  connects  man's  intellectual 
growth  with  that  which  he  so  greatly  prizes, 
namely,  material  wealth. 

The  primary  purpose  of  the  permanent  way 
of  a  railroad  was  to  furnish  a  surface  that  should 
be  at  once  hard,  smooth  and  unchanging  for 
wheels  to  run  upon. 

Railways  had  their  origin  in  Great  Britain  in 
the  tramways  laid  in  the  mining  districts  for  con- 
veying coal  to  the  sea  from  the  mines  near  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  rails  were  formed  of  scantlings  of  oak, 
straight  and  parallel  to  each  other,  connected  by 
cross  timbers  also  of  oak  and  pinned  together 
with  oak  treenails;  on  these,  carts  made  with 
four  rollers  fitting  the  rails  traveled,  the  carriage 
being  so  easy  that  one  horse  is  said  to  have  been 
able  to  draw  four  or  five  chaldrons  of  coal.  The 
benefits  derived  from  this  manner  of  transport- 
ing coal  suggested  to  the  thinking  man  the  em- 
ployment of  similar  means  for  facilitating  the 
conveyance  of  passengers  and  general  merchan- 
dise. 

A  road  graveled  between  the  rails  was  at  first 
provided  as  a  foothold  for  the  horses  which  drew 
the  cars.  The  wheels  were  kept  on  the  rails  by 
guides,  attached  either  to  the  wheels  or  to  the 
rails.  As  stated,  the  earliest  railroads  were  con- 
structed wholly  of  wood. 

In  comparing  the  first  railroads  with  the  com- 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION.  23 

mon  turnpike  road,  an  early  writer  says:  "A 
saving  is  made  of  seven-eighths  of  the  power, 
one  horse  on  a  railroad  producing  as  much  effect 
as  eight  horses  on  a  turnpike  road.  In  the  effect 
produced  by  a  given  power  the  railroad  is  about 
a  mean  between  the  turnpike  road  and  a  canal, 
when  the  rate  is  about  three  miles  an  hour;  but 
when  greater  speed  is  desirable  the  railroad  may 
equal  the  canal  in  effect  and  even  surpass  it." 

Rails  were  first  cast;  afterward,  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  they  were  rolled.  In  1767 
the  first  iron  rail  was  cast  at  Colebrookdale,  Eng- 
land. This  was  a  great  stride  forward.  It  was 
three  feet  long,  four  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and 
three  inches  high.  This  progressive  step  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  locomotive  when  it  should 
be  evolved.  However,  the  rail  thus  cast  proved 
to  be  too  light,  but  the  difficulty  was  overcome 
by  making  the  carts  or  wagons  smaller  and  coup- 
ling a  number  of  them  together  instead  of  having 
one  big  vehicle.  Thus  the  train  came  into  being. 
Shortly  afterward  it  was  found  possible  to  cast 
a  rail  six  feet  long;  in  1815  it  had  grown  to  fif- 
teen feet;  still  later  to  thirty  feet. 

In  1789  William  Jessop  first  introduced  a  rail 
with  a  smooth,  level  top,  substituting  a  wheel 
with  a  flange  for  the  old-fashioned  form.  This 
simple,  yet  ingenious,  device  at  once  revolution- 
ized previous  practices.  Before,  a  flange  or 
something  of  the  kind  had  formed  a  part  of  the 
rail  in  order  to  keep  the  wheel  on  the  track. 
This  not  only  added  to  the  cost  of  the  rail,  but 
rendered  it  less  strong  and  more  easily  worn  out. 


24          BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

The  flanged  wheel  cleared  the  sky.  In  1797  Jes- 
sop  also  contributed  to  the  development  of  rail- 
roads by  inventing  the  iron  chair,  which  he  in- 
serted between  the  rail  and  the  tie.  Rails  at 
this  time  were  very  light,  and  the  load  and  speed 
were  made  to  correspond. 


Jessop's  Cast  Iron  Fish-bellied  Rail,  A.  D.  1789.— [NOTE:  The  attention  of 
the  reader  is  particularly  called  to  the  fact  that  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 
tions not  only  the  form  of  the  rail  is  shown,  but  also  the  fastenings,  splice 
bars,  chairs,  ties  and  other  details  of  interest  connected  with  the  track.] 

FIG.  A. 


The  First  Rail  Chair.    Newcastle-on-Tyne,  A.  D.  1797. 

FIG.  B. 

Figures  A  and  B  illustrate  the  Jessop  rail  and 
iron  chair.  Some  of  the  various  styles  of  rails 
used  for  tram  roads  are  illustrated  by  Fig.  C. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  locomotive  to 
take  the  place  of  the  horse  commenced  the  de- 
velopment of  the  present  railroad.  This  was 
about  the  year  1830. 

George  Stephenson,  while  he  did  not  invent 
the  first  successful  locomotive,  is,  nevertheless, 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION. 


25 


rap  vitw.  Sfcr/o*. 

LeCann's  Tram  Rail,  requiring  neither  bolts  nor  spikes.    Wales,  A.  D.  1801. 


Wyatt's  Hexagonal  Rail,  North  Wales,  A.  D.  1802. 


Tram  Rail,  Surrey  Railway,  A.  D.  1803. 


Carlisle's  Wrought  (rolled)  Iron  Rail,  A.  D.  1811. 


Lcsh  &  Stephenson's  Edge  Rail,  Stockton  &  Darlington  Railroad,  A.  D.  1818. 

FIG.  C. 

quite  generally  accredited  with  being  the  father 
of  this  machine  and,  therefore,  of  the  railway 
system.  He  did  much  to  perfect  the  locomotive. 
As  I  have  had  occasion  to  remark  elsewhere,  his 


26          BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

prominence  in  connection  with  the  opening  of 
the  Liverpool  &  Manchester  railway,  where  for 
the  first  time  the  attention  of  the  world  was 
generally  drawn  to  the  railroad  question,  concen- 
trated attention  upon  him,  so  that  it  was  believed, 
though  erroneously,  that  he  invented  the  loco- 
motive and  operated  the  first  successful  one.  The 
idea  of  the  locomotive  originated  with  Trevithick, 
in  1803,  but  it  was  not  a  financial  success.  Af- 
terward, John  Blenkinsop  accomplished  what 
Trevithick  had  been  unable  to  do.  Blenkinsop 
had  constructed  two  locomotives  which  answered 
every  requirement,  so  far  as  the  action  of  steam 
and  economy  of  operation  were  concerned,  before 
Stephenson  manufactured  his  first  machine. 

The  locomotive  followed  naturally  the  inven- 
tion of  a  suitable  roadbed,  as  the  wagon  and  car- 
riage followed  a  suitable  highway.  The  railway 
track,  as  referred  to  elsewhere,  was  first  utilized 
in  connection  with  the  handling  of  coal.  The 
bulk  of  the  latter,  and  the  necessity  for  cheapen- 
ing its  price,  made  some  simple  appliance  for 
transporting  it  a  matter  of  the  greatest  possible 
importance  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  Horses 
were  at  first  used,  then  steam.  The  cost  of 
transportation  over  these  tramways,  or  primitive 
railroads,  is  said  to  have  been  about  ten  per  cent, 
of  that  over  the  common  turnpike. 

The  character  of  the  track  on  which  Trevith- 
ick's  first  locomotive  ran  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  D. 
The  character  of  the  rails  used  for  the  first  track 
on  which  locomotives  were  operated  is  shown  by 
Fig.  E.  These  rails  were  of  light  weight;  in  1825 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION. 


Tram  Rail  with  stone  supports,  upon  which  Trevithick's  first  locomotive  ran. 

FIG.  D. 

the  average  weight  of  rails  per  yard  was  about 
28  pounds;  in  1830  (about  the  time  the  locomo- 
tive was  introduced)  the  weight  was  increased  to 
35  pounds  per  yard.  As  the  weight  of  locomo- 


28          BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Birkenshaw's  Wrought-Iron  Rail,  A.  D.  1820. 


George  Stepnenson's  Fish-Belly  Rail,  Manchester  &  Liverpool  Railway, 


Rail  designed  by  Robert  L.  Stevens,  A.  D.  1830;  adopted  by  American 
railroads.  Shaded  section  shows  rail  as  originally  designed,  1830.  Section 
not  shaded  shows  rail  as  rolled,  1831.  This  rail  was  fastened  to  stone  blocks 
with  hook  headed  spikes;  at  the  joints  were  iron  tongues  fastened  to  the 
stem  of  the  rail,  put  on  hot. 

FT®.  E. 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION.  29 

tives  and  speed  of  trains  have  increased,  the 
weight  of  the  rail  has  grown  heavier.  Ninety 
and  even  100  pounds  per  yard  is  not  uncommon 
in  use  now. 

The  method  of  supporting  the  rails  on  the 
tram  road  and  the  first  railroad  was  generally 
stone  blocks  placed  at  their  ends,  as  illustrated 
by  Figs.  A,  B,  C,  D  and  E. 

With  the  introduction  of  rolled  wrought  iron 
rails,  in  1805,  their  length  began  to  increase,  and 
this  led  to  the  introduction  of  intermediate  sup- 
ports between  the  joints.  The  T  rail,  Fig.  E,  led 
to  the  use  of  cross  ties,  the  early  method  of  use 
is  illustrated  by  Fig.  F. 


30         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Standard  Track  of  Camden  &  Amboy  Railroad,  A.  D.  1837. 


Track  of  Camden  &  Amboy  Railroad.    Rails  laid  on  piling  through  marshes, 

A.  D.  1837. 


Stevens'  Rail,  Vicksburg  &  Jackson  Bailroad,  A.  D.  1841. 

FIG.  F. 


RAILWA  Y  E VOLUTION.  31 

To  cheapen  construction,  the  strap  rail  was 
largely  used  on  the  early  American  railroads;  it 
is  illustrated  by  Fig.  G. 


Stone  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  A.  D.  1833.    Thla 
was  a  favorite  American  device. 


Wooden  Stringer  and  Strap  Rail,  Albany  &  Schenectady  Railroad,  A.  D. 
1837.  A  strap  rail  was  used  on  many  of  the  first  railroads  in  America,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Central  and  Western  States. 

FIG.  G. 


32          BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

The  method  of  constructing  track  with  stone 
blocks  and  stone  stringers  gave  a  rigid  road  bed 
and  rough  riding  track  which  were  very  destruc- 
tive to  locomotives  and  cars.  This  led  to  the 
introduction  of  the  T  rail  and  the  use  of  cross 
ties.* 


Cross-Section  of  Track  in   Asphalt 


Cross-Section  of  Track  in   Granite  Block 


FIG.  H. 


STREET  RAILWAY  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  rails  are  laid  on  continuous  beams  of  concrete  made  of  cement,  sand 
and  broken  stone.  The  track  is  held  to  gauge  by  steel  ties  spaced  ten  feet 
centers.  The  space  between  the  rail  and  beam  is  solidly  filled  by  ramming 
In  a  mixture  of  cement  and  sand.  The  space  under  the  ties  is  filled  with 
liquid  grout. 

This  construction  is  somewhat  of  a  departure  from  the  usual  practice  in 
this  country,  and  is  found  to  be  more  durable  and  no  more  expensive  than 
the  usual  wood  tie  construction. 

The  above  used  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  and  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

During  the  winter  months  the  track  of  the  steam  railways  is  practically 
such  as  the  above. 

The  failure  of  the  early  methods  was  duc  to  poor  track  and  poor  rolling 
stock. 

In  connection  with  the  construction  of  railway 
track,  it  is  interesting  to  notice  the  methods 

*While  the  cross  tie  is  generally  used  by  railroads  throughout 
the  world,  the  Great  Western  Railway  of  England  uses  a  longi- 
tudinal support  for  its  rails.  Such  support  was  quite  common 
in  the  early  days  of  railroading,  but  has,  as  a  rule,  been 
abandoned. 


RAILWAY   EVOLUTION.  33 

adopted  by  street  railways  to  secure  a  permanent 
way  where  expensive  pavements  are  laid,  as  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  H.  The  weight  of  the  first  loco- 
motive on  the  London  and  Manchester  K.  R.  was 
7i  tons  including  the  tender;  in  1831  the  weight 
of  a  goods  train  with  engine  was  about  50  tons. 
The  weight  of  a  modern  electric  car  and  motor 
is  from  33  to  58  tons;  the  additional  weight  of 
passengers  when  fully  loaded  is  from  4  to  5  tons, 
making  a  total  of  37  to  63  tons.  We  find  that  this 
rigid  street  car  track  with  modern  rails  and  roll- 
ing stock  is  giving  a  smooth  riding  track  without 
injuring  the  rolling  stock. 

No  rigid  connection  between  the  ends  of  the 
rails  laid  in  a  track  was  made  until  1847.  Prior 
to  that  time  they  were  placed  one  against  the 
other  in  a  chair,  especially  designed  for  the  pur- 
pose, called  a  joint  chair.  The  ends  of  the  rails 
were  not  held  securely  in  this  chair,  but  could 
slide  past  each  other  and  were  quickly  ruined  by 
the  wheels  jolting  over  the  uneven  surface.  In 
1847  fish  plates  for  uniting  the  ends  of  the  rails 
were  introduced,  and  the  device  has  since  been 
generally  adopted.  By  this  means  the  rails  are 
firmly  held  together,  affording  an  even  surface 
at  the  top.  The  fish  plate,  a  strip  of  iron  about 
an  inch  thick,  was  placed  on  either  side  of,  but 
not  touching,  the  web  of  the  rail,  the  edges  of 
the  plate  being  made  to  perfectly  fit  the  sloping 
sides  of  the  head  and  foot  of  the  rail.  The  fish 
plate  is  held  in  place  by  bolts,  called  fish  bolts, 
which  pass  through  the  rail  and  the  two  fish 

3    Vol.  13 


34         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

plates  (one  on  either  side  of  the  rails),  drawing 
the  plates  together  and  tightening  their  edges 
against  the  rail.  The  rail  was  further  strength- 
ened at  the  fish  joint  by  the  cross  ties  being  laid 
nearer  each  other  there  than  in  other  portions  of 
the  track.  The  efficiency  of  the  fish  joint  de- 
pends upon  the  plates  being  kept  securely  in 
their  place.  They  require  to  be  frequently 
looked  after  and  the  bolts  screwed  up,  as  they 
are  liable  to  work  loose  with  the  jar  of  the  trains 
passing  over  them.  Various  styles  of  fish  plates 


English  Fish-belly  Rail,  New  Jersey  Railroad,  A.  D.  1832. 

FIG.  I. 

and  fastenings  have  been  introduced,  the  object 
being  to  find  some  way  for  holding  the  bolt  and 


RAIL  WAT  E  VOLUTION. 


35 


Joint  Chair  and  Wedge,  Old  Portage  Railroad,  A.  D.  1832. 


Stone  Block,  Rail  and  Joint  Tongue  laid  on  Camden  &  Amboy  Railroad, 
A.  D.  1831. 


FIG.  I. 


nut  firm  after  being  screwed  into  place,  so  they 
cannot  work  loose. 

The  early  method  of  fastening  rail  joints  is 
shown  by  Fig.  I.  The  development  of  the  rail 
joint  fastening  up  to  1860  is  illustrated  by 
Fig.  J. 


36         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Stevens'  Rail  Supported  by  Cast-Iron  Chair,  A.  D.  183T. 


Ring,  Joint  and  Wedge,  West  Jersey  Railroad. 


Wooden  Joint  Block,  New  Jersey  Railroad,  A.  D.  1860. 

FIG.  J. 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION. 


37 


Double  Splice  Bar. 


Erie  Rail  with  ends  stamped  for  Adams' 
Cast-Iron  Bracket  Splice,  A.  D.  1857. 


Single  Splice  Bar.  Double  Splice  Bar. 

FIG.  J. 

The  fish  plate  or  splice  bar,  and  the  angle  plate 
or  angle  splice  bar,  had  come  into  general  use  by 
1870.  Fig.  K.  illustrates  its  development  from 
1860  to  1880.* 


*In  another  chapter  the  reader  will  find  illustrations  of  the 
rail  joints  now  in  use.  The  best  method  of  fastening  the  ends 
of  rails  is  still  much  discussed. 


38         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Plain  Splice  Bar. 


A.  D.  1868. 


Angle  Splice  Bar, 


Angle  Splice  Bar. 


Angle  Splice  Bar. 

FIG.  K. 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION.  39 

Early  frogs  and  switches   are  illustrated  by 
Figs.  L  and  M. 


Frogs,  Colliery  Railroads  of  England,  A.  D.  182o. 


Staple  Iron  used  as  a  makeshift  for  a  Frog,  Camden  &  Amboy  Railroad, 
A.  D«  lool* 

FIG.  L. 


40         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Frog,  Old  Portage  Railroad,  A.  D.  1835. 


Wood's  Rail  Frog,  New  Jersey,  A.  D.  1859. 


FIG,  L. 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION. 


41 


"Switches  in  Colliery  Railroads,  England,  A.  D.  1825. 

FIG.  M. 

The  Method  of  using  bull  head  rails  is  shown 
by  Fig.  N. 


Section  of  English  Permanent  Way 

FIG.  N. 


As  timber  became  scarce  in  Europe  and  other 
countries,  metal  ties  were  adopted.  Fig.  0  illus- 
trates some  of  the  styles  used  and  the  methods 
adopted  for  fastening  the  rails. 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Steel  Tie,  London  &  Northwestern  Railway,  A.  D,  1885. 


Metal  "Pot"  Tie,  Midland  Railway  of  India.          Metal  Track,  Queensland,  A.  D.  1889. 
A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  track,  Midland  Railway, 
A.  D.  1889. 


Metal  track,  London  &  Northwestern, 
A.  D.  1889. 


FIG.  0. 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION. 


43 


Metal  track,  Elferfeld  Railway,  Germany,      Metal  track,  Great  Central  Railwayof  Belgium, 
A.  D.  1889.  A.  D.  1889. 

FIG.  0. 

During  the  development  of  the  T  rail,  from 
1830  to  1860,  there  were  a  number  of  devices 
and  patterns  proposed,  some  of  which  are  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  P.  r  v  , 


—  **—  —  i 


KVW\%I  yfe.den    Stringer,** 

Thick  Rectangular  Rail,  A.  D.  1838. 


Latrobe's  Compound  Rail,  wood  and  iron.    Baltimore 
&  Ohio  Railroad,  A.  D.  1841. 

FIG.  P. 


44 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS'. 


First  Rail  rolled  in  America,  Baltimore  &  Ohio       92-pound  Rail,  7  inches  high. 
Railroad. 


T  Rail,  A.  D.  1850. 


Z years  sennet*,  bottom, 
Ufwards.6Zlbi.il 

'Uiilllllilliiiliiin  L 


Pear-headed  Rail,  A.  D.  1853. 

FIG.  P. 


RAILWAY  EVOLUTION. 


Pear-headed  Rail. 


Pear-headed  Rail. 


Compound  Rail. 


Compound  Rail 


Compound  Rail.  Compound  Rail. 

Fie.  P. 


46         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Box  Bail. 


Barlow's  "  Saddle  Back  "  Rail,  laid  without  supports. 


Triangular  Stringer  capped  with  Iron. 

FIG.  P. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  RECONNOISSANCE. THE  FIRST  STEP  IN  RAILWAY 

CONSTRUCTION. 

In  locating  a  new  railway  line  or  extending 
an  existing  one,  many  factors  must  be  taken  ac- 
count of,  such  as  the  cost  of  the  proposed  line 
considered  in  relation  to  its  probable  revenue; 
the  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance;  and  the 
financial  resources  of  the  owners.  From  an 
operating  point  of  view  it  is  desirable  that  the 
route  shall  be  as  direct  as  possible,  a  straight  line 
drawn  between  the  termini  would  be  the  ideal, 
but  other  considerations  intervene,  such  as  the 
most  effective  and  profitable  service  that  can  be 
rendered  the  population  within  the  territory,  the 
cost  of  construction  first  and  the  expense  of 
maintenance  and  operation  afterward,  the  effect 
of  the  competition  of  existing  or  possible  lines  or 
other  forms  of  transportation,  etc.* 

When  it  is  desired  to  construct  a  new  line  be- 
tween given  points  or  extend  an  old  one  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  the  first  things  to  know  before  it  can 

*It  is  recorded  that  when  a  great  railway  line  was  projected 
in  the  Russian  Empire,  the  route  was  a  matter  of  much  contro- 
versy. The  emperor,  however,  solved  the  problem  by  taking  a 
ruler  and  ruling  a  straight  line  between  the  termini.  In  coun- 
tries like  ours,  however,  commercial  considerations  are  para- 
mount, and  no  such  heroic  disposition  of  the  matter  is  possible. 

(47) 


48         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

be  determined  upon  are,  what  will  be  the  best 
route  to  take,  and  the  probable  cost  and  charac- 
ter of  the  road  required.  To  ascertain  these  it 
is  necessary  that  the  country  to  be  traversed 
should  be  examined  by  engineers.  This  examin- 
ation is  called  a  reconnoissance,  and  is  made  un- 
der the  direction  of  a  civil  engineer.  *  It  is  of 
a  preliminary  character  only  and  is  not  intended 
to  give  an  accurate  survey  of  the  country.  It  is 
made  to  determine:  (a)  an  approximate  location 
for  the  proposed  line;  (b)  that  it  is  possible  to 
ascend  from  a  valley  on  a  given  grade,  and  get 
over  the  summit  of  the  divide;  (c)  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  descend  from  this  divide  and  cross  the 
summit  of  the  next  on  a  given  grade;  (c£)  the 
elevation  of  the  passes  of  the  divides  to  the  right 
and  left,  and  (e)  that  the  road  can  be  built  with- 
in certain  limits  of  expenditure. 

The  method  of  making  the  reconnoissance  dif- 
fers, of  course,  according  to  conditions. 

If  the  country  proposed  to  be  traversed  is  well 
known  and  has  been  settled,  accurate  maps  and 
surveys  of  it  can  be  readily  obtained.  Accord- 
ingly, the  engineer  provides  himself  with  a  map 
made  preferably  on  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  a 
mile.  Such  a  map,  where  a  government  survey 
has  been  made,  will  give  the  township  and  sec- 
tion lines;  generally  the  sub-division  of  each  sec- 
tion by  farm  fences  enables  any  desired  point  to 
be  accurately  located.  In  cases  where  the  coun- 


*The  duties  and  peculiarities  of  a  railway  civil  engineer  are 
referred  to  more  fully  in  the  book  "Railway  Organization." 


THE  RECONNOISSANCE.  49 

try  has  not  been  surveyed  by  the  government,  a 
map  or  plat  will  have  to  be  made  on  a  larger 
scale  than  that  indicated — say  two  inches  to  a 
mile,  so  that  the  boundaries  of  farms  and  other 
properties  can  be  clearly  shown. 

The  engineer  who  makes  the  reconnoissance 
will  require  the  following:  an  aneroid  barome- 
ter (Figs.  1,  2  and  3),  engineer's  field  books  and 


FIG.  1.  FIG.  2.  FIG.  3. 

ANEROID  BAROMETER  FOR  MEASURING  ALTITUDES. 

They  indicate  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  from  which  the 
altitude  above  sea  level  is  determined. 

note  books,  drawing  paper,  a  set  of  pocket  in- 
struments, (Fig.  4);  a  tin  map  case  or  two,  a  100 
ft.  steel  tape,  a  prismatic  compass  (Figs.  5  and 
6);  a  hand  level  (Figs.  7  and  8);  afield  glass 
(Fig.  9).  Provided  with  these  instruments,  the 
engineer  travels  the  country  mostly  on  foot,  lo- 
cating the  controlling  points.  Upon  his  map  he 
will  depict  not  only  the  location  of  section  lines 

4    Vol.  13 


50          BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


PIG.  4. 

ENGINEER'S  POCKET  INSTRUMENTS. 
These  generally  embrace  drawing  pens  and  large  and  small  compasses. 


PIG.  5. 

PRISMATIC  COMPASS  WITH  CLYNOMETER  ATTACHMENT. 
Used  to  take  bearings. 


THE  MECONN01SSANCE. 


51 


FIG.  6. 


PRISMATIC  COMPASS  WITH  CLYNOMETER  ATTACHMENT. 
Used  to  take  angles  of  slopes. 

The  Prismatic  Compass  is  used  for  taking  the  magnetic  bearing  of  a 
line.  The  Clynometer  attachment  is  used  to  take  the  slope  of  the  surface 
of  the  ground  with  a  horizontal  plane. 


FIG.  7. 

LOCK'S  HAND  LEVEL. 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  ll^ULWATS. 


FIG.  8. 


ABNEY'S  HAND  LEVEL  AND  CLYNOMETER. 

Hand  Levels  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  points  on  the  same 
level  as  the  eye  of  the  observer.  The  Clynometer  attachment  is  used  to  take 
the  slope  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  a  horizontal  plane. 


FIG.  9. 

FIELD  GLASSES. 
The  Field  Glass  brings  distant  objects  within  view  of  the  engineer. 

and  boundaries  of  farms  and  properties,  but  all 
water  courses,  ravines,  hills,  highways,  towns, 
villages,  etc.  In  his  survey  the  engineer  will 
ascertain  by  the  use  of  his  aneroid  barometer 
along  the  summits  of  divides  *  the  low  points  or 

*In  engineering  parlance  a  "divide"  is  the  line  separating 
the  water-sheds  of  two  adjacent  systems  of  drainage  or  rivers. 


THE  RECONNOI88ANCE. 


53 


the 
* 


passes.     He  will  ascertain  the  elevation  of 
valleys,  and  will  take  the  elevation  of  spurs 
from  the  divides,   also   plat    the  contours  f  of 

the  country  at  difficult 
points  when  necessary. 
Where  the  country  is 
unsettled  and  no  gov- 
ernment survey  has 
been  made,  the  method 
will  differ  somewhat 
from  the  foregoing.  In 
such  case  the  engineer 
must  secure  the  eleva- 
tion and  distance  of  the 
controlling  points,  while 
in  the  former  case  the 
plats  supplied  him  with 
the  distances.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  instruments 
specified  he  will  need  a 
pedometer  (Fig.  10); 

-j  j  ,  /TV 

and  an  OQOmeter  {V  IgS. 

11A,  11B,  11C),  and  a 
good  watch.  He  will 
not  need  to  be  provided 
with  instruments  for  determining  latitude  and 
longitude,  for  the  problem  has  already  been  re- 
duced to  sections.  For  example,  after  making 
the  summit  of  one  divide,  his  problem  is  to  cross 

*A  "spur"  is  a  ridge  extending  from  a  divide  and  separates 
the  water-sheds  of  two  branches  of  the  same  river. 

fThe  contour  of  a  country  is  indicated  by  lines  laid  down  on 
a  map  showing  the  location  of  points  of  the  same  elevation. 


FIG. 


PEDOMETER. 

Is  a  pocket  instrument  which  records 
the  distance  the  person  carrying  it  has 
walked.  In  reality  it  records  the  num- 
ber of  steps  taken,  but  by  proper  ad- 
justment the  distance  traveled  is  in- 
dicated. 


54         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  R^ULWAYS. 


the  next  valley  and  reach  the  summit  of  the 
next  divide,  using  the  desired  grade  and  curva- 
ture. Any  errors  of  dis- 
tance made  from  one  di- 
vide to  another  will  not 
affect  those  beyond.  In 
making  such  surveys 
camp  outfits  are  neces- 
sary. These  should  be  as 
light  and  simple  as  pos- 
sible. If  the  country  is 
even  and  sparsely  set- 
tled, the  engineer  will 
probably  take  two  ponies, 
one  to  carry  his  appli- 
ances, and  the  other  to 
ride.  When  possible  he 


FIG.  11  A. 


ODOMETER. 

Records  the  distance  traveled  by 
the  tire  of  a  wheel.  In  reality  it  re- 
cords the  number  of  revolutions,  but 
by  proper  adjustment  the  distance 
traveled  is  indicated. 


FIG.  HB. 

ODOMETER. 
Inside  dial  with  leather  case  and  straps. 

secures  a  guide  having  local  knowledge  of  the 
country. 


THE  RECONNOISSANCE. 


55 


In  making  a  reconnoissance  the  most  direct 
line  should  always  be  examined  first,  unless  there 
is  positive  knowledge  of  some  insurmountable 
difficulty.  Should  this  be  the  case,  of  course  the 
territory  to  the  right  or  left  will  be  examined. 
The  short  route,  other  things  being  equal,  should 

not,  however,  be 
too  quickly  aban- 
doned. Rocky  val- 
leys, giving  the  im- 
pression of  difficult 
and  expensive  con- 
struction, have  of- 
ten been  summari- 
ly avoided, when  af- 
terward they  have 
proved  to  be  the 
cheapest  location. 
When  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  a 
proposed  line  cros- 
ses ravines  or  pas- 
ses from  a  summit 
into  a  valley,  fol- 
lows a  stream  for 
some  distance  and 

then  ascends  another  stream  to  a  divide,  it  will 
be  found  advisable  to  look  for  a  high  line  and 
keep  on  the  summit,  following  a  spur  out  to  the 
stream,  cross  the  stream  by  a  viaduct  to  a  spur 
on  the  opposite  side  and  again  take  the  summit. 
Such  locations  need  careful  comparison  as  to  first 
cost  and  cost  of  operating  and  maintenance,  and 


FIG.  11C. 


ODOMETER. 
Inside  dial  with  leather  case  and  straps. 


56         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

in  making  a  reconnoissance  the  engineer  will  give 
them  most  careful  consideration.* 

Mountain  and  valley  lines  are  not  the  most 
difficult  to  construct  as  is  generally  supposed. 
The  greatest  errors  of  location  have  been  made 
on  open  prairies  and  foot  hills  of  mountains  on 
account  of  stopping  exploration  when  a  location 
giving  the  desired  grades  curvature  and  cost  was 
found  without  endeavoring  to  find  a  better. 

In  making  a  reconnoissance  the  engineer  will, 
as  he  proceeds,  make  calculations  and  notes 
showing  the  probable  nature  of  the  material  to  be 
handled  i.  e.>  whether  earth>  loose  rock,  hard  pan 
or  solid  rock,  and  the  percentages  of  each  at  dif- 
ferent cuts.  This  will  be  approximate  only,  but 
his  observation  will  afford  a  basis  upon  which  to 
estimate  cost.  He  will  note  also  the  probable 
quantities  of  excavation,  embankments  and  bridg- 
ing per  mile;  the  fuel  supply;  possibilities  of  bus- 
iness; the  geological  formation,  the  water  supply; 
the  timber  available  for  ties,  piling  and  bridging; 
the  character  of  the  rainfall,  and  the  effect  it 
may  have  on  operation. 

It  is  an  axiom  that  nature  always  works  along 
the  line  of  least  resistance.  The  engineer  fol- 
lows the  same  rule  and  makes  use  of  the  forces 
of  nature  to  overcome  difficulties.  The  highest 
compliment  that  can  be  paid  a  railroad  civil  en- 
gineer is  for  passengers  going  over  a  completed 


*On  a  railroad  in  north  America  a  valley  line  as  described 
above  was  built  and  afterward  abandoned  for  a  high  line  which 
saved  12  miles  of  track,  and  cost  nearly  a  million  dollars  less 
than  the  valley  line. 


THE  RECONNOISSANCE.  57 

road  to  remark  that  the  location  and  construc- 
tion were  easy,  and  required  no  great  knowledge 
or  skill,  because  the  passenger  is  ignorant  of  the 
expensive  bridging  avoided  and  the  deep  rock 
cuts,  the  long  tunnels  and  heavy  fills,  which  were 
unnecessary  on  account  of  the  skill  displayed  by 
the  engineer  who  made  the  reconnoissance. 

(NOTE: — The  student  requiring  detailed  information  in  regard 
to  the  methods  of  making  a  reconnoissance,  and  the  use  of  the 
barometer,  stadia,  and  gradienter  to  measure  distance,  will  find 
a  list  of  standard  books  on  the  subjects  in  Appendix  K). 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    PRELIMINARY    SURVEY. THE    SECOND    STEP    IN 

RAILWAY    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  reconnoissance  having  been  completed 
and  a  report  thereof  made  to  the  projectors,  they 
will  have  the  information  needed  to  enable  them 
to  decide  whether  or  not  they  will  proceed  with 
their  venture.  If  their  decision  is  in  the  affirm- 
ative and  the  outlook  is  favorable,  the  second 
step  is  now  taken  which  is  to  make  a  Prelimin- 
ary Survey;  this  duty  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  civil 
engineer,  generally  called  a  locating  engineer, 
who  takes  the  field  with  his  corps  of  assistants. 
The  instruments  the  locating  engineer  will  re- 
quire in  this  work  will  be  (a)  a  hand  level,  (£) 
an  aneroid  barometer,  (c)  a  field  glass,  (d)  a 
prismatic  compass,  (e)  a  pedometer  and  (/)  a  50 
ft.  steel  tape.  The  party  will,  of  course,  be  fur- 
nished with  the  necessary  stationery  and  kindred 
supplies. 

The  organization  of  the  force  making  the  pre- 
liminary survey  will  vary  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  country  and  other  considerations, 
such  as  the  resources  of  the  projectors  and  the 
degree  of  haste  required,  the  latter  factor  being 
often  controlled  by  financial  considerations,  or 
the  probability  of  an  invasion  of  the  field  by 
rivals. 

(58) 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY. 


59 


If  the  proposed  line  is  a  new  one,  the  chief  en- 
gineer will  probably  take  direct  charge  of  the 


FIG.  12. 

ENGINEER'S  TRANSIT  WITH  LEVEL,  AND  VERTICAL  ARC. 
Used  to  take  vertical  and  horizontal  angles;  also  to  extend  straight  lines. 
The  level  enables  approximate  elevations  to  be  taken  within  limited  dis- 
tances.   The  vertical  arc  is  used  for  taking  vertical  angles. 

work;  if  on  the  other  hand  it  is  an  extension  of 
an  existing  system,  a  locating  engineer  will  have 


60 


BUltDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


charge,  acting  in  subordination  to  the  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  system. 


FIG.  13. 


ENGINEER'S  TRANSIT  WITH  LEVEL,  AND  GRADIENTER 

ATTACHMENT. 

The  gradienter  attachment  is  for  the  purpose  of  locating  the  axis  of  the 
telescope  on  a  grade  line  parallel  with  the  grade  of  the  proposed  road;  in  con- 
nection with  a  level  rod  it  is  also  used  to  measure  distances. 

The  organization  of  the  force  making  a  pre- 
liminary survey  generally  consists  of  (a)  a  tran- 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY. 


61 


sit  party,  (6)  a  level  party,  (c)  topographers,  (d) 
draughtsmen,  (0)  commissary  and  camp. 

The  transit  par- 
ty is  generally 
made  up  of  a 
transit  man  who, 
in  the  absence 
of  the  locating 
engineer,  is  in 
charge;  the  tran- 
sit man  is  respon- 
sible for  the  ac- 
curacy of  all 
angles,  bearings 
and  measure- 

FIG.  14. 

ENGINEER'S  CHAIN. 
100  feet  long,  having  100  links. 

ments  taken ;  his  assist- 
ants are  a  head  flagman 
or  chainman,  a  rear 
chainman,  an  axeman 
or  stakedriver,  and  a 
rear  flagman.  The  num- 
ber of  assistants  will 
vary  according  to  cir- 
cumstances; thus,  the 
number  of  axemen  will 
depend  on  whether 
there  is  much  or  little 
timber  or  brush  to  be 
removed,  etc.  The  in- 
struments and  supplies  the  transit  party  need  are 
(a)  a  transit  (Figs.  12  and  13),  (b)  an  engineer's 


FIG.  15. 


ENGINEER'S  IMPROVED  TAPE 
CHAIN. 


62 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


chain  (Figs.  14  and  15),  (c)  a  100  ft.  steel  tape, 
(Fig.  16),  (d)  two  ranging  poles  or  rods  (Fig.  17), 


FIG.  16. 

STEEL,  TAPE. 


(e)  brush  hooks,  (/)  axes,  (g)  transit  books,  (h) 
lead  pencils,  hard  and  medium,  (i)  kiel  pencils, 


FIG.  17. 


RANGING  RODS  OR  POLES. 
Used  in  placing  hubs. 


(j)  tacks  for  centers  on  hubs,  (k)  two  50  ft.  Ches- 
terman's  metallic  tapes  (Fig.  18),  (/)  engineer's 
field  book,  (m)  scratch  blocks,  (w)  one  sounding 
rod,  3  joints  8  feet  each,  (o)  red  and  white  flan- 
nel for  signals,  (j?)  drawing  paper,  (#)  tin  map 
cases,  (r)  scales  (Fig.  19),  (s)  protractor  (Figs.  20 
and  21),  (tf)  steel  straight  edge,  (u)  triangles,  (v) 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY. 


63 


India  ink  and  ink  slab  and  carmine  blue  and 
neutral  tint  water  colors,  (w)  set  of,  drawing  in- 
struments and  drawing  board. 

The  leveling  party  is 
generally  made  up  of  a 
leveler  and  a  rodman, 
but  if  rapid  work  is  to  be 
done,  the  force  can  be 
increased  to   meet  re- 
quirements.   The  level-  ^ 
ing  party  is  responsible  CHESTERMAN'S  METALLIC  TAPE. 
for  the  correct  elevation  of  the  ground  at  all  sta- 


FIG.  19. 

ENGINEER'S  SCALE. 
Divided  into  10,  20,  30,  40,  50  and  60  parts  to  the  inch. 


FIG.  20. 

PROTRACTOR.  . 

tions  where  stakes  are  driven,  the  elevation  be- 
tween the  stakes  where  the  slope  of  the  ground 


64         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

changes  and  the  correct  location  of  this  point;  the 
elevation  of  the  water  in  streams;  the  elevation  of 


FIG.  21. 

TRANSPARENT  PROTRACTOR  WITH  RAILROAD  CURVES. 


FIG.  22. 

ENGINEER'S  Y  LEVEL. 
For  taking  elevations  and  establishing  benches. 

high  water  during  freshets;  and  the  elevation  of 
the  beds  of  the  streams  which  will  enable  cross 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  65 

sections  of  the  stream  to  be  platted;  the  placing 
of  benches  at  proper  intervals  and  the  correct 
elevation  of  them. 

The  leveling  party  will  require  the  following: 
(a)  a  level  (Fig.  22),  (6)  two  Philadelphia 
leveling  rods  (Fig.  23),  (c)  one  Chester- 
man's  fifty-foot  metallic  tape,  (c?)  nails  to 
use  in  benches,  (e)  a  hand  axe  with  leather 
case  and  belt,  (/)  level  books,  (</)  lead  pen- 
cils, hard  and  medium,  (A)  profile  paper 
(?)  kiel  pencils,  (j)  India  ink  and  ink  slab 
and  carmine  blue  and  neutral  tint  water 
colors,  (&)  scratch  blocks. 

The  topographical  party  is  most  variable 
in  its  composition.  Sometimes  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  notes  taken  by  the  locating 
engineer  and  transitman,  and  at  other 
times  it  may  consist  of  a  level  man,  rodman, 
chainman,  and  axeman.  The  topographical 
party  is  responsible  for  the  data  used  in 
determining  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  ground 
to  the  right  and  left  of  the  line;  the  loca- 
tion of  roads,  buildings,  streams,  etc.,  lay- 
ing to  the  right  and  left  of  the  line,  prop- 
erty lines  and  names  of  the  owners  of  the 
property,  also  the  section  lines  where  a 
government  survey  has  been  made;  FIG.  23. 
the  character  of  the  material  to  be  PHILADELPHIA 
met  with  in  the  excavations,  etc.  LEVELING 

The  instruments  and  supplies  required  by  the 
party  will  vary  greatly  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  case,  but  a  complete  equipment  for 
the  party  would  be  as  follows:  (a)  one  level 

3    Vol.  13 


66         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

(Figs.  22  and  24),  (J)  one  Philadelphia  level 
rod,  (c)  one  self -reading  level  rod,  (c/)  one  100 


FIG.  24. 

LEVELING  INSTRUMENT  AND  GRADIENTER. 
For  topographical  work.    With  this  both  elevations  and  distances  can  be 

taken. 


FIG.  25. 

CLYNOMETER,  OR  SLOPE  INSTRUMENT. 

ft.  steel  tape,  (e)  one  hand  level,  (/)  one  pris 
matic  compass  with  clynometer  attachment,  (g] 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  6? 

one  clynometer  (Fig.  25),  (A)  topographical 
books,  cross  section  books  and  cross  section  paper 
(lOths). 

The  draughtsman  (or  draughtsmen)  accom- 
panies the  party  to  record  the  result  of  its  oper- 
ations by  making  the  necessary  drawings  and 
maps.  His  accessories  are  (a)  a  set  of  drawing 
instruments,  (&)  protractor,  (c)  straight  edge, 
(d)  scale,  (e)  triangles,  (/)  lead  pencils,  hard 
and  medium,  (#)  drawing  paper,  cross  section 
paper  and  profile  paper,  (A)  cross  section  books, 
(i)  India  ink,  ink  slab,  carmine  blue  and  neutral 
tint  water  colors,  (J)  camel's  hair  brushes,  (&) 
drawing  board  and  trestles,  (/)  thumb  tacks. 

The  commissary  and  camp  party  is,  of  course, 
unnecessary  in  a  well  settled  country,  but  is  a 
most  important  adjunct  in  other  cases;  when  it 
is  necessary  to  make  provision  for  feeding  and 
housing  the  force  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  intelligent  provision  be  made  for  its  health 
and  comfort,  as  serious  results  may  ensue  if  the 
survey  be  delayed  through  sickness  or  lack  of 
subsistence. 

The  result  of  the  reconnoissance  will  have 
enabled  the  projectors  to  decide  the  maximum 
grades  and  degrees  of  curvatures  that  will  be  ac- 
ceptable; the  average  cost  of  the  bridges  proposed 
to  be  used;  the  cost  per  yard  for  earth,  loose  rock, 
solid  rock  and  hard  pan;  the  cost  per  mile  of 
track;  the  cost  of  depots,  water  stations,  coal 
sheds,  etc.,  and  the  locating  engineer  will  have 
been  furnished  with  this  data. 

The  detailed  methods  adopted  "in   making  a 


68         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

preliminary  survey  will  probably  never  be  alike 
in  any  two  instances;  they  will  depend  upon  the 
genius  and  capacity  of  the  engineer  in  charge, 
but  there  are  several  well  defined  plans  or 
methods  of  operation,  which  may  be  described 
in  general  terms,  as  follows: 

First  Method:  The  engineer  tries  to  get  the 
preliminary  line  as  close  as  possible  to  the  ground 
to  be  occupied  by  the  location.  He  has  what  is 
termed  "  an  eye  for  country"  and  keeps  the  level 
party  close  up  to  the  transit  party,  having  the 
profile  of  the  ground  platted  in  the  field;  on  this 
profile  he  lays  down  trial  grade  lines;  side  notes 
of  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  ground  are  noted  by 
him  on  the  plat  when  he  thinks  they  will  assist 
him.  A  trial  line  is  made  from  the  point  of 
commencement  of  the  survey  to  the  summit  of 
the  first  divide;  if  it  does  not  prove  satisfactory, 
an  examination  of  the  map  and  profile  is  made, 
and  with  the  side  notes  and  knowledge  of  the  lay 
of  the  country,  such  changes  are  made  as  the 
engineer  thinks  proper.  The  map  *of  such  a  pre- 
liminary survey  gives  the  alignment,  streams, 
highways,  buildings,  and  section  lines  bounding 
the  property  belonging  to  different  owners, 
together  with  the  names  of  the  latter;  ridges 
and  bluffs  are  often  indicated  by  hatched 
lines.  This  method  is  pursued  from  one  con- 
trolling point  to  another.  No  attempt  is 
made  to  show  on  the  map  any  examinations 
that  may  have  been  made  to  ascertain  whether  a 
better  line  could  have  been  secured  to  the  right 
or  left.  In  this  case  the  management  accepts  the 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  69 

line,  if  it  fulfills  the  required  conditions,  depend- 
ing upon  the  opinion  of  the  engineer  as  to  whether 
it  is  the  best  that  can  be  secured. 

Second  Method:  Under  this  method  a  step 
towards  greater  accuracy  is  secured  by  having  a 
topographer  and  assistant  added  to  the  party 
who  take  side  notes  with  hand  level  and  tape 
line,  locating  the  streams,  highways,  buildings, 
etc.  The  contours  are  also  laid  down  on  the 
map,  and  the  line  is  revised  as  in  the  first  method, 
but  with  the  advantage  of  having  more  data  re- 
garding the  lay  of  the  ground. 

Third  Method:  Under  this  method  greater 
accuracy  is  secured.  The  topographer  with  a 
level,  a  rodman  and  a  chainman  proceeds  to 
make  cross  sections  of  the  country  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  at  all  points  where  the  slope 
of  the  ground  changes,  carrying  the  cross  sections 
out  such  distance  as  the  engineer  directs.  This 
gives  more  accurate  data  from  which  to  locate 
the  contours,  and  gives  the  engineer  fuller  data 
from  which  to  decide  on  the  location  of  the  line. 
This  method  also  gives  the  engineer  the  means 
of  furnishing  the  management  with  a  map  con- 
taining data  which  will  enable  it  to  call  in  a  con- 
sulting engineer  to  criticise  the  line  selected. 

Fourth  Method:  This  method  is  the  one  used  by 
a  large  railway  system  in  North  America,  and  aims 
at  greater  accuracy  than  the  preceding  ones;  it 
also  tends  to  eliminate  errors  of  judgment  of  the 
engineer  in  charge  of  the  survey.  The  engineer 
proceeds  with  the  survey  as  in  the  first  method, 
and  is  furnished  a  topographer  and  assistants  as 


70         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

provided  in  the  third  method.  The  topographer 
is  required  to  cross  section  the  country  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  every  three  hundred  feet,  and 
carry  the  cross  sections  out  at  least  700  feet  each 
side  of  the  line.  On  each  line  on  which  cross 
sections  are  made,  side  elevations  are  taken  every 
three^  hundred  feet  at  a  distance  of  one  hundred 
feet  right  and  left.  By  this  method  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  ground  is  secured  on  both  sides  of 
the  line  ran  at  each  one  hundred  foot  station; 
and  accurate  data  is  secured  to  make  a  reliable 
contour  map  covering  a  stretch  of  country  four- 
teen hundred  feet  wide  or  about  one-quarter  of 
a  mile.  This  enables  an  expert  to  locate  the 
best  line  from  the  map,  and  eliminate  the  errors 
of  judgment  of  the  one  in  charge  of  the  survey. 
Fifth  Method:  This  method  is  used  by  one  of 
the  leading  railroads  of  the  world,  and  is  radi- 
cally different  from  any  of  the  preceding  ones. 
The  engineer  aims  more  to  lay  his  line  so  that 
he  can  secure,  at  least  expense,  data  to  make  a 
topographical  map  of  an  extended  area  of 
country.  The  preliminary  survey  is  made  quickly, 
and  the  method  of  taking  the  topography  is 
rapid,  and  with  a  good  topographer  accuracy  is 
secured.  The  maps  and  profiles  are  made  as 
the  survey  proceeds,  but  generally  the  contours 
are  not  worked  out  in  the  field,  although  if  neces- 
sary this  can  be  done.  When  this  method  is 
observed  it  is  usual  to  follow  the  preliminary 
survey  with  a  location  running  out  the  tangents 
only,  as  shown  by  a  location  from  the  topo- 
graphical map  of  the  preliminary  survey.  On 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  71 

this  first  location  topographical  notes  are  taken 
as  on  the  preliminary.  From  the  notes  made 
from  this  location,  a  second  topographical  map 
is  made,  and  from  this  second  map  the  final  loca- 
tion is  made.  Topographical  notes  are  again 
taken  on  the  second  location  and  another  map 
made,  from  which  a  study  of  the  possibilities  of 
improving  and  cheapening  the  line  is  made 
before  construction  commences.  The  method  of 
taking  the  topography  is  to  ascertain  the  angle 
which  the  surface  of  the  ground  slopes  with  a 
horizontal  line  and  measuring  the  length  of  the 
slope  to  where  the  ground  assumes  another 
slope,  take  the  angle  of  this  slope  and  measure 
the  length  of  it,  etc. 

The  following  is  an  outline  in  general  terms 
of  the  details  of  a  preliminary  survey: 

In  starting  the  survey  the  first  hub*  should  be 
driven  in  the  center  line  of  the  railroad  which 
the  new  line  is  to  connect  with,  and  the  angle 
taken  with  the  center  line  of  the  existing  rail- 
road and  the  first  tangent  of  the  proposed  road. 
This  hub  should  be  carefully  referenced  to  some 
permanent  objects  so  that  it  can  be  replaced  if 
destroyed.  Stakes  should  be  set  securely  in  the 
ground,  the  blazed  side  facing  the  first  hub;  the 
first  stake  should  be  set  100  feet  from  the  hub 
and  marked  number  one,  the  second  stake  should 
be  set  100  feet  from  the  first  and  marked  num- 

*The  terra  "hub"  is  used  by  engineers  to  distinguish  the  points 
over  which  the  transit  is  placed— it  is  usually  a  large  size  stake 
driven  flush  with  the  ground;  in  a  rocky  bluff  it  may  be  a  small 
hole  in  the  rock  or  a  plug  driven  in  a  crevice  of  the  rock  or  a 
hole  drilled  in  the  rock. 


72         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ber  two.  In  this  way  the  transit  party  proceeds 
to  set  stakes  every  100  feet,  and  puts  the  num- 
bers on  the  blazed  side  facing  the  first  hub.  The 
numbers  on  the  stakes  thus  show  the  number  of 
one  hundred  feet  from  the  point  of  commence- 
ment of  the  survey.  Wherever  the  transit  is  set 
up  a  large  stake  or  hub  is  driven,  and  a  large  tack 
or  small  nail  driven  in  the  point  set  by  the  tran- 
sit man.  At  a  distance  of  about  eighteen  inches 
from  the  hub  a  reference  stake  is  driven  giving 
the  station  of  the  hub,  thus  if  the  second  hub  on 
the  survey  is  driven  at  a  distance  of  1006.3  feet 
from  the  first  the  reference  stake  would  be 
marked  10+06.3,  which  would  mean  ten  stations 
and  six  and  three-tenths  feet;  the  numbers  on  the 
reference  stake  should  face  the  hub;  all  stakes 
should  be  set  by  the  transit  man. 

When  the  survey  has  progressed  to  a  point 
where  the  locating  engineer  wishes  to  change  the 
direction,  a  hub  is  driven,  and  the  back  flag  man 
holds  his  ranging  pole  on  the  tack  of  the  hub 
next  to  the  end  of  the  line;  the  transit  is  set  up 
on  the  last  hub,  the  vernier  of  the  transit  set  at 
zero,  and  a  sight  taken  on  the  ranging  rod  held 
by  the  back  flag  man,  the  upper  plate  undamped, 
and  the  telescope  sighted  to  a  hub  on  the  new  line 
ahead,  and  the  angle  read  from  the  vernier;  the 
magnetic  bearing  of  both  the  first  and  second 
lines  should  be  taken  at  this  time.  The  transit 
man  records  the  stations  of  all  hubs  where  the 
transit  is  set  up;  also  the  angles  of  one  line  with 
another  and  whether  turned  to  the  right  or  left; 
also  the  magnetic  bearings  of  both  lines  at  hubs 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  73 

where  angles  are  taken  or  the  direction  of  the 
survey  changes.  If  there  is  no  topographer, 
the  transit  man  also  takes  the  topographical 
notes,  the  transit  book  is  ruled  on  the  left-hand 
page  for  the  notes  of  the  line,  and  on  the  right- 
hand  page  for  the  notes  of  the  topography. 

The  head  chainman,  who  generally  acts  as 
head  flagman,  carries  the  head  end  of  the  chain 
and  a  ranging  rod;  after  he  has  been  given  the  line 
for  a  stake  it  is  his  duty  to  see  that  the  axeman 
marks  it  correctly,  and  places  it  in  the  ground 
with  the  figures  facing  the  right  direction;  while 
the  axeman  is  driving  the  stake,  the  chainmen 
proceed.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  hind  chainman  to 
note  the  numbers  on  each  stake  as  he  proceeds, 
and  at  once  have  the  axeman  correct  any  errors 
in  numbering  or  direction  of  facing  the  stake. 
The  leveling  party  also  checks  the  numbers  on 
the  stakes;  this  is  very  important  as  the  numbers 
on  the  stakes  are  the  only  means  of  determining 
the  lengths  of  the  lines  composing  the  survey. 

In  commencing  the  levels  a  bench*  is  estab- 
lished on  some  permanent  object,  and  if  the  survey 
of  a  new  line  is  being  made,  the  height  of  the 
bench  is  assumed  at  an  elevation  above  a  datum 
plane,  which  the  locating  engineer  is  sure  is  lower 
than  any  part  of  the  country  he  is  going  to  make 
the  survey  in,  to  avoid  the  confusion  of  minus 
quantities.  Where  the  elevation  above  sea  level 
can  be  secured  by  the  barometer  or  otherwise,  it 
is  better  to  make  sea  level  the  datum  plane. 

*A  "bench"  is  any  permanent  object  on  which  an  elevation  is 
taken;  the  elevation  of  the  first  bench  used  in  a  survey  is  gener- 
ally given  an  assumed  elevation. 


74         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

When  the  new  line  is  an  extension  of  an  older 
system,  the  same  datum  plane  should  be  used,  as 
was  adopted  on  the  old  one. 

As  the  levels  proceed,  benches  should  be  es- 
tablished at  least  once  each  mile;  they  should 
be  on  permanent  objects,  wherever  such  are 
possible  to  be  secured.  The  projecting  root 
of  a  tree  when  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  cone,  with  a 
nail  driven  in  it,  makes  a  good  bench;  the  tree 
in  this  case  should  be  blazed,  and  the  letters 
B.  M.*  with  the  elevation  of  the  bench  marked 
under  them;  stone  sills  of  doors,  water  tables  of 
buildings,  etc.,  make  good  benches,  though  often- 
times nothing  better  than  a  hub  can  be  secured. 
All  benches  should  be  marked  plainly  with  the 
letters  B.M.  and  the  elevation.  When  a  hub  is 
used  a  reference  stake  should  be  driven  as  for  a 
transit  hub,  and  it  should  always  be  placed  some 
distance  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  line,  so  as  not 
to  be  mistaken  for  a  transit  hub. 

The  leveler  should  record  all  benches,  giving 
their  location  and  elevation:  for  example,  station 
52+26.5  B.M.  50  feet  R.  elev.  482.645  means 
that  at  a  point  50  feet  on  the  right  side  of  the 
surveyed  line,  opposite  station  52+26.5,  there  is 
a  bench  having  an  elevation  of  482.645  feet  above 
the  assumed  datum  plane.  The  reference  stake 
should  have  the  figures  facing  the  bench  and  the 
line. 

The  leveler  should  record  all  readings  of  the 
rod  for  back  and  foresight  on  benches  and  turn- 
ing points  (or  temporary  benches)  and  these 

*The  letters  "  B.M."  stand  for  Bench  Mark. 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  75 

readings  should  be  taken  to  not  less  than  two 
decimal  points  of  a  foot,  but  it  would  be  better 
to  read  the  rod  to  three  decimal  points.  This 
can  be  readily  done  with  a  Philadelphia  rod, 
after  a  little  practice.  The  elevations  of  the 
ground  should  be  taken  at  each  o.ne  hundred  foot 
station  where  stakes  are  driven,  and  at  such 
intermediate  points  where  the  ground  changes, 
as  will  enable  a  correct  profile  to  be  platted.  In 
taking  the  elevations  of  the  ground,  the  Phil- 
adelphia rod  can  be  used  as  a  self-reading  rod, 
and  the  readings  taken  to  the  nearest  tenth. 

The  rodman  should  have  a  level  book  in  which 
to  record  all  back  and  foresights  on  benches  and 
turning  points,  and  to  record  the  location  of 
benches.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  rodman  to  see 
that  the  stakes  are  all  correctly  numbered  con- 
secutively; the  leveler  can  assist  in  seeing  that 
this  is  properly  done. 

As  far  as  possible  all  back  and  foresights  should 
be  of  an  equal  distance  so  that  errors  in  setting 
the  target  will  balance  each  other.  Sights  should 
not  usually  exceed  five  hundred  feet  in  length, 
and  in  windy  weather  a  less  distance  is  prefer- 
able. 

To  insure  accuracy  it  is  necessary  to  have 
check  levels  run  to  detect  errors  in  taking  the 
elevation  of  benches;  if  the  errors  remain  undis- 
covered it  might  not  be  possible,  when  the  loca- 
tion came  to  be  made,  to  reach  a  summit  on  the 
grade  proposed,  or  the  cost  of  the  work  might  be 
greatly  increased  by  heavier  cuts  and  fills  than 
the  profile  indicated. 


76        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Level  books  are  ruled  with  six  columns  to  a 
page,  and  the  safest  way  to  keep  the  notes  is  as 
follows:  on  the  left-hand  page  use  the  first  col- 
umn for  the  station,  second  column  for  the  back 
sight,  third  column  for  the  height  of  instrument, 
fourth  for  the  foresight,  fifth  for  the  reading  of 
the  rod  on  all  points  except  benches  and  turning 
points,  sixth  for  the  elevation  of  all  points  on 
which  the  rod  is  held  except  benches  and  turn- 
ing points.  The  right  hand  page  should  be  used 
to  give  the  elevation  of  benches,  turning  points 
and  their  description  and  location,  and  other 
miscellaneous  notes  as  for  example: 

Elevation  482.645  50  ft,  Eight  of  52+26.5  B.  M. 
on  Chestnut  Tree. 

Elevation  of  surf  ace  of  water  in  "Cobb's  Creek." 

Elevation  of  high  water  "Cobb's  Creek"  June  16, 
1895. 

Elevation  of  center  of  highwaij  station  55+20. 
and  any   other  notes   of   elevations   of   objects 
which  may  affect  the  location  or  construction  of 
the  road  or  be  of  use  in  future  claims  for  dam- 
ages. 

By  this  method  of  keeping  the  notes,  back  and 
foresights  can  be  added  up  on  the  first  page,  and 
the  footings  carried  to  the  top  of  the  second,  and 
the  footings  of  the  second  being  the  total  of  the 
first  and  second  pages  carried  to  the  top  of  the 
third,  the  same  as  the  footings  of  a  cash  book. 
The  advantage  is  that  the  levelm^n  at  noon  can 
in  five  minutes  have  his  back  and  foresights 
footed  up  for  the  morning's  work,  and  if  the  dif- 
ference between  them  gives  the  elevation  of  his 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  77 

last  bench  or  turning  point,  he  knows  there  has 
been  no  clerical  error  in  his  morning's  work.  If 
he  now  turns  to  his  rodman  and  does  the  same 
thing  with  his  notes  and  secures  the  same  result, 
he  knows  he  has  been  using  the  correct  readings 
of  the  target,  and  has  not  misunderstood  the  rod- 
man— a  thing  which  can  be  easily  done  in  windy 
weather.  A  check  can  be  secured  on  the  rod- 
man's  reading  the  target  by  using  the  Philadel- 
phia rod;  and  when  taking  both  back  and  fore- 
sights on  benches  or  turning  points,  using  the  rod 
first  as  a  self-reading  rod  the  leveler  can  then  tell 
whether  the  rodman  gives  the  feet  and  tenths 
correctly.  Where  this  method  of  taking  levels 
is  pursued,  there  should  not  be  any  mistake  of 
importance  made. 

The  leveler  will  often  be  required  to  plat  his 
profile  in  the  field,  so  that  the  locating  engineer 
can  determine  whether  the  ground  is  rising  too 
fast  for  the  length  of  the  line,  or  whether  his 
line  is  too  low  in  the  valley;  to  do  this  the  level- 
er must  make  use  of  the  time  the  rodman  is 
walking  between  stations  to  work  out  the  ieleva- 
tion  of  the  ground.  This  will  enable  him  to  act 
promptly  wrhen  called  upon  for  profile. 

The  person  in  charge  of  topography  should  be 
a  man  of  judgment  with  a  good  eye  for  country, 
and  for  the  salient  points  to  take  data  which  will 
enable  the  contours  to  be  platted  with  the  least 
difficulty  and  labor  on  the  part  of  the  draughts- 
man. He  should  keep  his  work  up  close  to  the 
level  party,  and  have  his  rnotes  clear  and  exact; 
in  addition  to  securing  data  for  the  contours,  he 


78         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

should  sketch  the  streams,  highways,  buildings, 
section  lines,  division  fences  of  farms,  and,  if 
possible,  secure  and  record  the  names  of  the  own- 
ers of  land.  He  should  note  the  character  of  the 
soil,  whether  earth,  loose  rock,  solid  rock,  etc., 
and  note  the  outcroppings  of  bluffs. 

The  note  books  used  in  the  field  on  one  day 
should  be  left  with  the  draughtsman  to  plat  the 
notes  on  the  following  day,  and  the  field  force 
should  use  another  set  of  note  books  for  the  fol- 
lowing day,  the  two  sets  thus  alternating  between 
the  field  force  and  the  draughtsman.  To  avoid 
confusion  each  man  using  a  field  book  of  any 
kind  whatever  should  commence  the  day's  work 
by  recording  the  date  and  time  of  the  day,  also 
noting  the  day  of  the  week  and  month,  and  the 
same  thing  must  be  done  on  closing  at  night,  or 
when  finishing  one  book  and  commencing  an- 
other. The  books  should  be  lettered  and  num- 
bered, and  the  commencing  and  closing  station 
noted  on  the  cover;  also  the  letter  or  number  of 
the  line.  Much  confusion  is  sometimes  caused 
by  not  observing  these  details,  where  the  survey 
is  in  difficult  country,  and  a  number  of  trial  lines 
have  to  be  run. 

Another  point  to  be  observed  is  never  to  erase 
any  notes  taken  in  the  field;  if  any  changes  are 
to  be  made,  the  changes  should  be  noted  with  a 
different  colored  pencil  than  is  used  in  the  field 
or  with  ink;  further  information  may  demonstrate 
the  original  notes  to  have  been  correct  or,  at 
least,  that  the  alterations  were  incorrect.  If  field 
notes  are  copied  into  another  book,  the  original 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  79 

should  be  preserved,  so  that  clerical  errors  in 
copying  can  be  corrected. 

The  draughtsman  being  provided  with  the 
notes  as  outlined  can  keep  the  work  up  close,  so 
that  the  locating  engineer  can  know  definitely 
what  he  is  doing.  After  extending  the  survey 
for  some  distance,  and  reaching  a  controlling 
point  where  he  feels  satisfied  the  country  on 
either  the  right  or  left  does  not  present  a  more 
favorable  point,  he  can  make  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  maps,  profiles,  etc.,  and  also  of  the 
country  traversed  with  a  view  to  making  such 
changes  as  the  data  secured  suggests.  At  this 
point  in  the  survey,  the  location  very  often  com- 
mences, and  is  made  from  the  junction  of  the  ex- 
isting road  to  the  controlling  point  mentioned. 
The  peculiarities  of  location  will  be  treated  later. 

If  the  survey  is  being  conducted  in  a  settled 
country,  the  party  at  this  point  in  the  prelimin- 
ary survey  moves  on  to  a  town  or  village  near 
the  next  section  of  the  survey,  or  if  in  a  thinly 
settled  section,  camp  is  moved  to  a  convenient 
location.  The  frequency  of  these  changes  de- 
pends on  the  character  of  the  country.  In  an 
easy  country  they  are  often  made  daily,  while  in 
difficult  country  the  party  may  have  headquarters 
at  a  given  point  for  many  days.  In  addition  to 
the  work  outlined  above,  the  locating  engineer 
has  other  duties  to  perform.  Thus,  the  extreme 
high  and  low  water  levels  must  be  noted  of  all 
streams  crossed,  and  also  cross  sections  of  the 
streams  must  be  secured;  careful  notes  must  be 
taken  of  the  probable  classification  of  the  mate- 


80        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

rial  composing  the  cuts,  as  the  question  of  water 
supply  for  locomotives  may  decide  the  choice  of 
location;  especially  in  arid  countries  must  this 
be  noted;  the  fuel  supply  must  be  considered,  and 
in  connection  with  this  the  geological  formation 
must  be  noted  not  only  for  coal  but  minerals 
which  may  yield  profitable  business;  the  commer- 
cial possibilities  of  the  country  must  be  set  forth 
and  the  localities  suited  for  towns,  yards  and  divi- 
sion points  suggested.  The  locating  engineer 
must  be  a  man  of  resources,  and  ready  to  adapt 
old  methods  to  new  conditions,  and  he  must  also 
be  able  to  devise  new  methods  to  meet  condi- 
tions which  are  new  to  him  if  not  to  other  en- 
gineers. Thus  a  rocky  canyon  where  the  instru- 
ment men  can  not  get  on  the  line  of  the  proposed 
road  even  with  the  use  of  assistants  and  ropes, 
requires  the  surface  of  the  cliff  to  be  located 
both  for  line  and  levels  by  triangulating  from 
the  valley  below  the  opposite  side  of  the  canyon, 
or  from  the  top  of  the  opposite  bluff.  The  ob- 
stacle offered  by  a  marshy  plain  too  soft  for  men 
to  walk  over,  and  over  which  there  is  not  enough 
water  to  float  a  boat,  will  sometimes  tax  the  re- 
sources of  the  engineer,  but  it  must  be  overcome. 
A  heavily  timbered  country  with  a  thick  under- 
growth of  brush  and  vines,  such  as  is  the  rule  in 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries,  especially 
near  streams,  will  call  for  a  display  of  skill  and 
resources. 

Two  maps  of  the  preliminary  survey  should  be 
made,  one  on  a  scale  of  one  mile  to  an  inch. 
This  should  be  platted  from  co-ordinates,  calcu- 


THE  PRELIMINARY  SURVEY.  81 

lated  in  the  same  way  as  the  latitudes  and  de- 
partures of  a  farm  survey;  such  a  map  gives  a 
comprehensive  view  of  the  entire  route;  the  cal- 
culations for  co-ordinates  give  a  ready  means  to 
ascertain  the  distance  across  country  between 
any  two  points  of  the  survey  and  the  direction  to 
lay  a  line  to  make  a  survey  of  the  cross  cut.  The 
usual  maps  on  the  scale  of  two  hundred  or  four 
hundred  feet  to  an  inch  can  only  cover  sections 
of  the  survey,  and  do  not  give  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  line  as  a  whole. 

It  is  always  well  to  make  examinations  of  the 
country  from  each  terminus,  as  it  frequently 
happens  that  another  route  and  a  better  one  is 
discovered  by  the  locating  engineer  going  back 
over  the  line  from  the  end  of  the  survey  to  the 
point  of  commencement. 

The  preliminary  survey  should  be  thorough, 
and  all  possible  improvements  in  the  line  and 
grades  tried,  so  that  the  work  of  location  may  be 
rapid  and  require  but  few  changes. 

Finally,  the  locating  engineer  must  understand 
handling  his  men,  and  be  able  to  get  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  work  done  with  the  minimum 
amount  of  friction  among  the  members  of  the 
party;  he  must  use  tact  with  the  people  in  the 
district  through  which  the  survey  is  being  made; 
their  local  history  and  prejudices  should  be  taken 
note  of,  and  he  should  ascertain  who  are  their 
leaders  in  forming  public  opinion. 

Another  point  to  be  touched  upon  before  pro- 
ceeding to  discuss  the  location  is  the  methods 
adopted  to  determine  which,  of  two  or  more 

6    Vol.  13 


82        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

routes  will  be  the  cheapest  to  operate,  taking  into 
consideration  the  first  cost,  the  cost  of  operation 
and  the  cost  of  maintenance.  The  determina- 
tion of  this  question  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance, and  is  the  one  surrounded  with  the  great- 
est difficulties;  only  those  actually  in  the  active 
management  of  railroads  and  those  who  have  at- 
tempted to  furnish  a  reliable  means  of  reaching 
a  decision  realize  the  difficulties,  The  locating 
engineer  on  a  preliminary  survey  must  always 
keep  this  sjabject  in  his  mind. 

For  further  details  and  methods  in  relation  to 
preliminary  surveys  as  given  by  different  engi- 
neers the  reader  is  referred  to  Appendix  K. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  LOCATION. THE  THIED  STEP   IN    RAILWAY  CON- 
STRUCTION. 

The  reconnoissance  and  preliminary  survey 
having  been  made  and  the  results  reported  to  the 
projectors  of  the  new  line,  they  have  definite 
data  upon  which  to  proceed.  They  now  know 
enough  to  be  in  a  position  to  estimate  the  cost  of 
the  proposed  line;  the  grades  and  curves  that  are 
possible  and  the  engineering  obstacles  that  have 
to  be  overcome;  they  are  also  in  a  position  to 
estimate  the  probable  cost  of  operation. 

The  question  that  now  has  to  be  decided,  the 
reconnoissance  and  preliminary  survey  having 
given  them  information  as  to  all  the  available 
routes  where  the  line  can  be  most  advantage- 
ously located,  is,  which  will  be  the  cheapest 
route,  having  regard  to  cost  of  construction  first 
and  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance  after- 
ward. When  these  questions  have  been  decided, 
a  party  is  put  into  the  field  to  make  the  final 
location. 

The  organization  of  the  locating  party,  the 
duties  of  the  various  members,  and  the  instru- 
ments and  supplies  required  will  be  practically 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  preliminary  sur- 
vey, except  that  the  transit  party  will  lay  out 

(83) 


84         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

spirals,*  curves,  etc.,  in  detail,  f  and  will  place 
stakes  at  each  one  hundred  feet  on  curves  the 
same  as  on  the  straight  lines  in  the  preliminary 
survey,  and  will  carry  the  numbering  along  the 
measured  distances  on  the  tangents,  spirals  and 
curves.  The  duties  of  the  leveling  party  will 
be  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  preliminary 
survey.  The  services  of  the  topographer  will  be 
needed  now  as  then,  indeed  his  notes  will  be 
more  full  and  exact  though  they  will  not  extend 
so  far  to  the  right  and  left  as  in  the  former  case. 
The  draughtsman  will  accompany  the  party  as 
before,  but  his  work  will  be  done  with  more  at- 
tention to  detail,  and  his  maps  and  profiles 
finished  with  greater  care  and  exactness. 

The  locating  party  will  make  soundings  at  all 
watercourses  to  ascertain  the  depth  of  the  rock 
or  hard  strata  necessary  for  bridge  foundations, 
and  will  lay  the  grade  lines.  %  In  conducting  the 

*A  "spiral"  is  a  parabolic  or  elliptical  curve  placed  between  a 
tangent  and  a  curve  to  secure  the  gradual  change  in  the  move- 
ment of  a  train  from  a  tangent  to  a  curve. 

fThe  work  of  locating  is  often  carried  on  at  the  same  time  as 
the  preliminary  survey.  For  detailed  methods  of  laying  spirals, 
the  following  authors  may  be  consulted;  J.  C.  Nagle,  W.  H. 
Searles,  Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series  No.  110,  C.  K.  Howard 
and  C.  L.  Crandall.  The  calculations  for  laying  out  curves, 
changing  the  direction  of  tangents,  locating  compound  and  re- 
verse curves,  and  similar  problems,  are  given  in  a  number  of 
"Engineers'  Field  Books,"  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  W.  H.  Searles,  J.  C.  Nagle,  W.  F.  Shunk,  C.  S.  Cross, 
J.  C.  Trautwine,  and  J.  B.  Houck. 

JAppendix  H  gives  rules  and  values  to  enable  a  comparison 
to  be  made  between  two  or  more  proposed  routes.  The  amount 
of  the  reduction  of  grades  on  curves  to  make  the  resistence  to 
the  train  correspond  with  that  on  the  tangents  has  not  yet  been 
settled;  opinions  vary  from  0.025  ft.  per  degree  of  curvature  to 
0.05  ft.  The  latter  is,  perhaps,  the  safer  to  use.  The  practice  is 
generally  to  eauate  the  grades  on  curves  to  the  extent  that  they 
will  not  exceed  the  maximum  grade. 


THE  LOCATION.  85 

work  of  locating,  there  are  a  number  of  methods 
which  can  be  adopted  on  the  trial  lines,  some  of 
which  may  be  mentioned,  viz: 

First:  Running  the  tangents  to  an  intersec- 
tion and  putting  stakes  in  only  on  the  tangents 
to  the  points  where  the  curves  commence  and 
end,  carrying  the  numbers  on  the  stakes  the 
same  as  if  the  curves  were  run.  The  level  read- 
ings can  be  taken  at  the  center  and  quarter 
points  of  the  curve. 

Second:  Running  the  curves  of  the  paper  lo- 
cation without  running  the  tangents  to  an  inter- 
section and  going  ahead  or  backing  upon  the 
curve  to  make  the  tangent  fit  the  ground. 

Third:  Locating  points  on  a  curve  by  a  long 
chord  and  backing  the  curve  in.* 

The  survey  of  inaccessible  bluffs  is  referred 
to  under  the  head  of  the  preliminary  survey,  and 
the  same  remarks  apply  to  the  locating  party. 
In  such  localities  the  constructing  forces  make  a 
roadbed  along  the  face  of  the  bluff  on  the  estab- 
lished grade,  and  the  alignment  is  worked  out  to 
fit  the  roadbed. 

As  long  tangents  as  possible  should  always  be 
secured;  a  persistent  examination  of  the  coun- 
try and  study  of  the  map  and  profile  will  often 
result  in  a  much  larger  percentage  of  long  tan- 
gents than  is  at  first  thought  possible. 

Absolute  reverse  curves  should  never  be  used, 
unless  in  very  heavy  rock  work  where  the  plac- 

*This  is  a  convenient  method  in  rocky  country  on  the  sides 
of  bluffs  where  the  transit  man,  his  instrument  and  assistants 
have  to  be  supported  by  ropes  let  down  from  the  top  of  a  bluff. 


86        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ing  of  a  tangent  between  curves  would  entail 
heavy  expense.  Such  cases  will,  however,  be 
rare  if  proper  care  in  selecting  the  location  is 
taken. 

Reverse  curves  should  always  have  a  tangent 
between  them  of  sufficient  length  to  enable  the 
cars  to  gain  their  equilibrium  after  leaving  one 
curve  and  before  entering  on  another  (see  Appen- 
dix H). 

The  intersection  of  all  grades  should  be  con- 
nected by  a  vertical  curve;  there  should  never  be 
a  level  grade  laid  through  a  cut,  as  in  such  case 
it  is  difficult  to  drain  the  water  away  from  the 
cut. 

All  bridging  that  can  possibly  be  dispensed 
with  without  unduly  increasing  the  cost  of  grad- 
ing should  be  avoided,  especially  where  draw 
bridges  are  required  over  navigable  streams;  a 
considerable  increase  in  the  cost  of  grading  can 
be  allowed  if  it  will  enable  the  engineer  to  avoid 
a  drawbridge. 

Sharp  curvature,  like  a  succession  of  short  tan- 
gents and  curves,  should,  when  possible,  be 
avoided.  Heavy  cuts  should  be  avoided  if  possi- 
ble, as  they  cause  trouble  during  snow  storms. 

The  locating  engineer,  transit  man  and  leveler 
must  all  take  fuller  information  than  on  the  pre- 
liminary survey  regarding  the  following  matters, 
viz: 

Heights  of  high  water  and  low  water  at  streams, 
making  careful  cross  sections  of  the  larger  ones; 
soundings  must  be  made  to  determine  the  depth 
to  hard  pan  or  rock;  inquiries  must  be  made  re- 


THE  LOCATION.  87 

garding  the  rainfall  and  such  information  as  may 
throw  light  on  the  proper  size  to  adopt  for  bridge 
openings.  Section  and  property  lines  must  be 
located  both  by  the  station  at  which  they  cross 
the  survey  and  the  angle  with  the  line.*  The 
locating  engineer  must  give  his  personal  atten- 
tion to  noting  the  classification  of  the  material 
in  the  cuts  and  possible  borrowpits,  the  geolog- 
ical formation,  the  water  and  fuel  supply,  the 
rainfall,  the  commercial  prospects,  the  possible 
town  sites,  yards  and  division  points,  f 

The  surveyed  line  should  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions of  about  one  mile  each,  and  the  amount  of 
all  excavation  and  embankment  work  calculated 
with  its  probable  classification.  Calculations 
must  also  be  made  of  the  amount  of  piling,  square 
timber  and  wrought  and  cast  iron  required  for 
the  bridging  for  each  opening. % 

Calculations  must  also  be  made  for  masonry  of 
all  kinds,  such  as  that  required  for  bridge  abut- 
ments and  piers,  retaining  walls,  arch  and  open 
culverts,  truss  bridges  of  wood  or  iron  and  steel 
or  plate  girder  bridges,  depots,  track  and  yards, 
round  houses  and  shops.  In  fact,  everything  re- 
quired to  be  done  or  constructed  to  complete  the 
road  for  the  running  of  trains  must  be  carefully 

*This  should  be  done  with  a  transit  and  the  distance  measured 
from  located  line  to  the  section  corners,  highways,  buildings, 
streams,  etc. 

fThe  hubs  can  be  referenced  in  by  the  locating  party;  but  it 
is  well  to  let  the  engineer  on  construction  do  this. 

JThe  number  of  openings  may,  however,  be  reduced  after- 
wards, possibly,  by  changing  the  courses  of  streams  and  drains 
or  ravines  after  the  location  has  been  decided  on. 


88         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

calculated, -so  that  the  estimated  cost  may  be 
ascertained  before  actual  construction  commences. 
The  map  of  the  completed  location  will  show 
the  alignment  giving  the  point  of  curvature,  the 
radius  of  the  curve  and  total  angle  formed  by  the 
intersection  of  the  tangents,  the  point  where  the 
curve  ends  and  tangent  commences,  the  centered 
hubs  on  the  curves  and  tangents,  the  right  of  way 
required  for  the  road,  depot  grounds,  yards  and 
borrowpits,  the  names  of  the  property  owners; 
also  the  plats  of  towns  and  villages,  highways, 
section  lines  and  location  of  section  corners  where 
a  U.  S.  government  survey  has  been  made;  also 
buildings  and  streams.  In  addition  this  map 
should  give  the  contour  lines,  so  that  possible 
improvements  can  be  studied  in  the  office  of  the 
chief  engineer.  The  profile  should  have  the 
ground  line  drawn  with  India  ink,  and  tinted  on 
the  ground  or  lower  side  with  neutral  tint;  the 
grade  line  should  be  shown  with  carmine;  the 
elevation  at  each  change  of  grade  and  the  rate 
of  grade  between  each  change  should  be  given; 
the  bridging  and  various  openings  should  be 
marked  and  the  character  of  the  bridge  or  open- 
ing stated;  high  and  low  water  should  be  shown 
with  blue;  the  names  of  the  streams  given  and 
the  division  points  between  sections  shown.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  profile  the  alignment  should  be 
given  showing  the  width  of  the  right  of  way,  names 
of  owners  of  the  property,  the  roads,  streams  and 
towns  and  villages;  the  estimated  quantities 
should  be  shown  on  each  section  with  the  classi- 
fication, and  the  amount  of  excavation  and  em- 


THE  LOCATION.  89 

bankment  in  each  cut  and  fill  should  be  given.* 
For  further  details  and  methods  in  relation  to 
location  as  given  by  different  engineers  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Appendix  K. 

*In  connection  with  this  chapter  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Appendix  I,  which  treats  on  location,  for  more  detailed  informa- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The  route  having  been  definitely  located,  pro- 
posals are  invited  from  contractors  to  construct 
the  road;  agents  are  sent  out  to  secure  the  right 
of  way,  and  the  engineering  force,  under  the 
direction  of  the  chief  engineer,  is  placed  in  the 
field  to  plan  and  supervise  the  work  of  building. 
The  official  in  immediate  charge  of  the  work  is 
generally  known  by  the  title  of  Division  En- 
gineer.* 

The  division  engineer  should  be  one  experienced 
in  methods  of  railway  construction  and  of  execu- 
tive ability;  he  should  have  knowledge  of  the 
methods  contractors  adopt  to  do  the  work,  and 
also  of  those  which  are  sometimes  resorted  to  to 
avoid  doing  it. 

The  headquarters  of  the  division  engineer 
should  be  located  at  such  a  point  on  his  division 
that  he  can  readily  reach  any  point  on  it,  and  yet 
be  convenient  to  the  telegraph  and  postoffice;  he 
is  generally  given  a  clerk  and  draughtsman. 

*It  is  well  to  state  here  that  the  titles  given  subordinate  en- 
gineers vary  so  on  different  systems  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  from 
his  title  what  are  his  duties.  In  this  book  whenever  the  title 
"Division  Engineer"  is  used,  it  will  indicate  the  engineer  who 
reports  directly  to  and  receives  orders  from,  the  chief  engineer; 
also  the  engineer  having  charge  of  constructing  the  road  through 
one  or  more  counties,  or  some  forty  or  more  miles  of  road.  The 
title  "Assistant  Engineer"  will  indicate  the  engineer  who  re- 
ceives orders  from  and  reports  to  the  "Division  Engineer";  also 
the  engineer  who  has  direct  charge  of  the  construction  of  four  to 
six  miles  of  road,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  work. 

(90) 


CONSTRUCTION.  91 

The  assistant  engineer  should  be  a  man  who 
has  had  some  practical  experience  in  railroad 
building;  he  should  be  gifted  with  a  disposition 
that  will  enable  him  to  secure  obedience  with- 
out contention  with  his  assistants  or  the  contrac- 
tors or  their  employes;  he  should  be  competent, 
energetic,  sober  and  reliable.  He  is  generally 
given  a  rodman  and  chainman  as  assistants,  both 
of  whom  must  possess  a  fair  education  and  be 
able  to  assist  in  making  the  calculations  both  on 
the  line  and  in  the  office. 

The  division  engineer  is  furnished  by  the  chief 
engineer  with  a  complete  profile,  map  and  record 
book  of  his  division,  and  he  in  turn  furnishes  this 
data  for  the  section  under  their  jurisdiction  to 
each  of  his  assistant  engineers.  In  the  record 
books  they  will  find  notes  of  the  alignment  and 
levels  giving  all  hubs,  benches  and  turning  points 
used  by  the  party  in  the  final  location. 

The  first  work  of  the  assistant  engineer  is  to 
check  the  alignment  and  see  that  all  hubs  and 
stakes  are  correctly  located;  also  to  put  in  such 
additional  hubs  as  may  facilitate  work  during 
construction* 

The  next  step  is  to  thoroughly  reference  all  the 
hubs,  placing  the  reference  hubs  at  such  points 
as  appear  least  likely  to  be  occupied  by  the  con- 
struction forces  for  roads,  borrowpits,  runways, 
etc.* 

^Reference  hubs  should  be  placed  at  equal  distances  on  each 
side  of  center  line,  usually  at  right  angles,  from  50  to  75  feet  out. 
It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  place  hubs  about  a  foot  back  of  cross- 
section  stakes  and  points  at  the  mouth  of  cuts  about  a  foot  below 
grade,  at  points  on  low  tills,  etc. 


92         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

The  levels  must  now  be  re-run,  checking  both 
the  benches  and  elevation  of  the  ground;  new 
and  additional  benches  must  be  established  look- 
ing to  security  of  location  as  in  the  case  of  refer- 
ence hubs,  especially  will  they  be  needed  at 
grades  of  heavy  cuts  where  they  will  be  used 
often,  at  streams  where  bridge  piers  are  to  be 
built,  etc. 

The  width  of  cuts  and  fills  having  been  decided 
upon,  the  work  of  staking  out  for  excavation  and 
embankments  will  be  proceeded  with.* 

From  the  profile  of  the  location  the  division 
engineer  decides  where  the  work  shall  be  com- 
menced, which  is  often  at  a  point  where  heavy 
work  is  required;  or,  perhaps,  if  the  season  is  dry, 
a  marsh  or  swamp;  or  a  rocky  and  difficult  place 
which  must  be  graded  in  order  to  enable  the 
forces  to  get  at  work  laying  beyond  it,  etc.  The 
assistant  engineers  commence  cross-sectioning 
these  points,  and  then  extend  their  work  to  the 
points  next  to  be  occupied  by  the  contractors 
until  the  entire  work  is  cross-sectioned  or  staked 
out.  The  notes  of  cross-sectioning  made  in  the 
field  may  be  kept  in  the  form,  Fig  26. 

In  calculating  quantities  of  excavation  and 
embankment  several  methods  are  in  vogue,  some 
aiming  to  approximate  the  prismoidal  formula 
and  to  compensate  for  curvature;  the  general 
practice,  is,  however,  that  known  as  averaging 


*The  various  standards  for  roadbed,  track  bridges,  etc.,  are 
discussed  in  another  chapter,  only  the  actual  work  of  construc- 
tion being  considered  here. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


93 


STATION 

BACK 
SIGHT 

HEIGHT 

NSJRUMfH 

rone 

SIGHT 

EltVATlOK 
CRAOt 

CUT  Oft  FILL  ON  THC 
LCTT  or  CCNTfRLINL 

CUT  OK  r  ILL  ON  THC 
RIGHT  OF  CfNTfKiINf 

IOO 

S  2S 

SOS  25 

50OOO 

1«          «          -3 

o       -«       -,« 

iQi 

499SO 

•)H     *^    -* 

o     -M     -** 

'SO 

i  60 

SO'  3} 

6  50 

lOi 

499  OO 

*«      -M    -» 

o    -is   -AA 

LCt 

T              n 

9A/J 

/MC.A 

RIC.HT          H*N 

J                />/fC/ 

FIG.  26. 

FORM  OF  CROSS  SECTION  BOOK. 

end  areas;   form  Fig.  2 6 A,  can  be  used  in   this 
connection: 


STAT/OM 

AREAS      SQ.  FT. 

QUANTITIES  CU.  YDS 

REMARKS" 

EXCAVATION 

EMBANKMENT 

EXCAVATION 

EMBANKMEW 

, 

FIG.  26A. 

FORM  OF  QUANTITY  BOOK. 


While  the  assistant  engineers  are  testing  and 
revising  the  alignment  and  levels  and  starting 


94         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  cross-sectioning,  the  division  engineer  will  be 
examining  the  country  to  the  right  and  left  of 
the  line  to  ascertain  the  area  and  nature  of  the 
territory  to  be  drained,  and  thus  be  enabled  to 
decide  on  the  size  of  openings  for  bridges,  cul- 
verts, etc.  At  this  time  he  will  also  decide  on 
the  changes,  if  any,  to  be  made  in  water  courses, 
ravines,  etc.,  to  reduce  the  number  and  size  of 
openings,  if  possible.* 

In  deciding  upon  the  size  of  openings  the  en- 
gineer must  rely  on  his  local  knowledge;  he  must 
take  into  account  the  height  of  freshets,  the 
cross-sections  of  streams  at  high  water  and  the 
rate  of  fall  of  streams  or  valleys.  This  is  one  of 
the  engineers  perplexing  problems;  he  does  not 
want  to  have  embankments  washed  out  after  the 
road  is  opened  for  business;  neither  does  he 
want  to  build  unnecessary  bridges.  The  best  he 
can  do  in  a  new  country  is  to  compare  his  opin- 
ion with  the  data  given  and  size  recommended 
by  the  engineer  on  location  and  preliminary  sur- 
vey, and  act  upon  his  best  judgment. 

The  division  engineer  prepares  a  bill  of  ma- 
terial for  all  bridges  and  openings  on  his  division 
and  gives  the  location  of  each;  these  he  sends  to 
the  chief  engineer  so  that  the  material  can  be 
forwarded  without  delay. 

*There  are  engineers  who  use  a  formula  to  determine  the  size 
of  openings  for  culverts  and  bridges,  based  on  the  area  drained; 
as,  however,  the  slope  of  the  area  drained,  the  porosity  of  the 
soil  and  other  variable  or  unknown  quantities  cannot  be  taken 
into  account  in  any  formula,  it  is  of  doubtful  value.  The  subject 
is  one  about  which  little  is  known  even  for  cities  where  the  size 
of  sewers  depends  on  it,  and  a  formula  good  for  one  locality  is 
worthless  for  another. 


CONSTRUCTION.  95 

The  first  work  of  the  contractor  is  to  clear  and 
grub  the  right  of  way;  stumps  and  logs  are  re- 
moved from  under  embankments,  but  where  the 
embankment  is  to  be  more  than  three  feet  in 
height,  no  grubbing  will  be  required,  cutting  the 
stump  off  close  to  the  ground  will  suffice. 

The  estimates  for  material  for  track,  bridges 
required  to  be  erected  by  false  work,  buildings, 
shops,  etc.,  are  made  in  the  chief  engineer's  office, 
and  thf  division  engineer  often  has  nothing  to  do 
with  such  work  except  to  give  track  centers  over 
his  division. 

At  the  point  or  points  where  the  new  line  con- 
nects with  a  railroad,  material  yards  are  estab- 
lished, and  in  these  the  material  for  track,  build- 
ings and  bridges,  etc.,  is  assembled,  each  kind  of 
material  being  piled  separately.* 

The  methods  adopted  by  contractors  to  do  the 
grading  depend,  of  course,  on  the  nature  of  the 
material  and  the  size  of  the  cuts  and  fills. 

Where  embankments  are  light,  i.  e.,  fills  not 
over  ten  feet,  the  material  is  generally  taken 
from  borrowpits  on  each  side  of  the  embankment 
leaving  a.  bermef  of  not  less  than  five  feet  be- 
tween the  bottom  of  the  slope  and  the  borrowpit. 
In  this  class  of  work  the  earth  in  the  borrowpits 


*It  sometimes  occurs  that  material  for  large  trestles  or  false 
works,  or  for  use  in  cases  where  a  number  of  streams  cross  the 
line  close  together,  is  hauled  across  the  country  from  some  other 
railroad  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  used  thus  enabling  the 
work  to  be  done  ahead  of  the  tracklayers  and  so  preventing 
delay. 

fThe  "berme"  is  the  space  between  the  base  of  an  embank- 
ment and  the  inside  edge  of  the  side  ditch. 


96         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


is  loosened  with  a  plow,  and  drag  or  wheel 
scrapers  are  used  to  haul  it  to  place.  (See  Figs. 
27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  33,  3 


FIG.  27. 

GRADERS'  PLOW. 


FIG.  28. 

DRAG   SCRAPER. 


*There  is  being  introduced  for  this  class  of  work  machines 
known  as  "elevator  graders  and  ditchers."  These  machines  are 
drawn  by  six  or  more  horses,  and  in  suitable  earth  excavate  the 
material  in  the  borrowpit,  elevate  it  and  dump  it  in  the  embank- 
ment or  into  wagons  (see  Figs.  36  and  37.)  The  objection  to  mak- 
ing embankments  direct  from  borrowpits  with  this  machine  is 
that  the  earth  is  loose  in  the  embankment,  and,  consequently, 
great  shrinkage  ensues.  Where,  however,  the  machine  loads 
wagons  and  they  haul  the  dirt  to  the  embankments  this  objec- 
tion is  removed.  Embankments  four  to  six  feet  high  have  been 
successfully  made  with  this  machine  by  having  teams  pulling 
harrows  anJ  rollers  on  the  embankment  to  pulverize  and  com- 
press the  earth  delivered  on  the  embankment  by  the  machine. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


FIG.  29. 

DRAG  SCRAPER  WITH  RUNNERS 


97 


FIG.  30. 

DRAG  SCRAPER  WITH  BOTTOM  PLATE. 


FIG.  31. 

BACK  SCRAPER. 


7    Vol.  13 


98          BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  32. 

TWO- WHEELED  SCRAPER. 


END  GATE  CLOSED. 

PIG.  33. 

TWO- WHEELED  SCRAPER. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


99 


End  gate  open. 

FIG.  34. 

TWO- WHEELED  SCRAPER. 


FIG.  36. 

SIDE  VIEW  OF  GRADER  DITCHER  AND  WAGON  LOADER. 


100        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  37. 

REAR  VIEW  OF  GRADER  DITCHER  AND  WAGON  LOADER. 


Heavy  fills  are  generally  made  wholly  from 
material  excavated  close  by,  but  where  the  loca- 
tion has  been  made  with  the  view  of  avoiding  cuts 
as  much  as  possible,  the  heavy  fills  will  ha  ye  to 
be  made  with  material  from  borrowpits.  In  this 
case  the  bottom  is  put  in  with  material  borrowed 
on  each  side  of  the  road  and  at  the  point  of 
heavy  fill;  the  top  is  made  with  material  bor- 
rowed at  the  end  near  grade  and  hauled  out  on  the 
top  of  the  embankment  and  is  built  up  in  lifts  of 
two  or  three  feet  at  a  time;  the  top  material 
for  the  embankment  is  taken  from  the  cut  at  the 
end,  which  is  widened  or  used  as  a  borrowpit  on 
the  side  from  which  snow  will  come.  Where  the 
length  of  haul  is  considerable,  four-wheeled 
scrapers,  wagons  and  carts  are  used  (see  Figs.  39 
to  44.) 


CONSTRUCTION. 


FIG.  39. 


101 


FOUR-WHEELED  SCRAPER  IN  POSITION  FOR  LOADING 
FRONT  PAN. 


FIG.  40. 

FOUR-WHEELED  SCRAPER.     REAR  PAN  DUMPED. 


102       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  41. 

TWO- WHEELED  DUMP  CART. 


FIG.  42. 

END  DUMP  WAGON. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


103 


FIG.  43. 

BOTTOM  DUMP  WAGON. 


FIG.  44. 

IRON  END  DUMP  CART, 


Embankments  must  be  built  up  regularly,  and 
carried  up  their  full  width  as  they  progress,  to 
ensure  uniform  settlement.  The  degree  of  settle- 


104        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ment  of  an  embankment  is  an  uncertain  quantity, 
depending  on  the  kind  of  material  and  the  state 
of  the  weather  when  the  work  was  done;  if  wet, 
the  embankment  will  be  more  compact  than  if 
the  weather  was  dry.  The  manner  of  doing  the 
work  also  affects  sattlement,  thus,  if  embank- 
ments are  put  up  wholly  with  drag  scrapers  from 
the  sides  they  will  be  the  most  compact;  if  put 
up  by  wheel  scrapers  from  the  side  they  will  be 
less  compact,  while  the  poorest  embankment  is 
made  by  wagons  and  carts  hauling  from  a  cut  or 
borrowpit  at  one  end  and  building  the  bank  in 
lifts  of  two  or  three  feet  at  a  time,  the  empty 
wagons  returning  on  the  top  of  the  embankment. 
Wagon  and  cart  embankments  settle  the  most. 

Frosted  or  frozen  material,  especially  clay, 
should  never  be  put  in  an  embankment,  unless 
provision  is  made  to  meet  excessive  and  uneven 
settlement  under  the  tracks  afterwards.  In  case 
frozen  clay  is  used,  the  embankment  is  liable  to 
slide  out  laterally  when  thawing  takes  place. 
Stumps,  logs  and  brush  should  never  be  allowed 
in  an  embankment. 

The  matter  of  providing  for  shrinkage  on  a 
new  bank  is  largely  one  of  individual  opinion, 
based  on  experience.  A  good  practice  is  to  build 
the  embankment  so  as  to  allow  a  shrinkage  of 
one-tenth,  i.  e.,  an  embankment  in  a  ten-foot  fill 
should  be  built  eleven  feet  high.  The  bank 
should  be  the  full  width  at  the  top  and  carried 
out  full  to  the  slope  stakes  at  the  base,  and  no 
sags  should  appear  in  the  slope  between  the  top 
or  grade  and  foot  of  slope.  In  Fig.  45  the  dotted 


CONSTRUCTION.  105 

lines  show  how  contractors  will  skimp  an  em- 
bankment where    material  is   scarce,   the   haul 


FIG.  45. 

Embankment;  built  full  width  at  grade  and  out  to  the  slope  stakes. 

long,  or  the  embankment  high.  Particular  care 
must  be  taken  at  the  bridges  to  have  the  ends  of 
embankment,  and  also  the  slopes  full.  A  good 
practice  is  to  get  more  earth  into  an  embank- 
ment than  the  section  requires,  especially  at 
bridges,  thus  allowing  for  shrinkage  and  washing 
down  of  material.  It  must  always  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  cheapest  material  put  in  an  em- 
bankment is  that  put  in  by  the  contractor  before 
the  track  is  laid,  though  this  can  be  carried  to 
extremes  and  be  made  to  unduly  increase  the 
cost. 

The  material  should  be  paid  for  as  measured 
in  excavation,  and  this  is  not  only  fairer,  but 
makes  the  contractors'  interests  correspond  large- 
ly with  those  of  the  owners. 

In  cases  where  an  embankment  has  no  open- 
ings through  it  except  arched  culverts  and  cast 
iron  pipe  drains,  the  addition  of  one-tenth  per 
foot  for  shrinkage,  as  indicated,  will  increase  the 
grade  gradually  at  one  end  of  the  cut  and  de- 
crease it  gradually  at  the  other,  but  this  will  cause 


106        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

no  inconvenience  in  operating  trains.  Where, 
however,  there  is  an  opening  for  a  bridge,  trestle 
or  open  culvert,  the  structure  must  be  put  at  the 
established  grade,  and  the  embankment  sloped 
off  gently  at  each  approach,  so  that  trains  wili 
not  drop  suddenly  from  the  embankment  on  to 
the  bridge.  The  practice  of  building  an  embank- 
ment with  shrinkage  added  and  then  putting  the 
bridge  to  a  grade  to  correspond  with  the  top  ot 
the  embankment  as  built,  is  faulty;  the  effect  is 
to  change  the  grade  permanently  and  lose  the 
object  sought  in  giving  shrinkage  to  the  embank- 
ment. 

Cuts  are  not  handled  by  contractors  in  the 
same  way  as  embankments;  their  methods  vary 
according  to  the  kind  of  material  to  be  handled; 
whether  the  material  must  be  placed  in  embank- 
ment or  wasted;  and  the  ingenuity  of  the  con- 
tractor. 

Contractors  prefer,  as  a  rule,  to  waste  the  ma- 
terial near  the  center  of  cuts,  where  the  cuts  are 
light  and  the  material  from  borrowpits  is  conveni- 
ent to  the  embankment.  Engineers  on  the  other 
hand  may  wish  the  excavated  material  all  placed 
in  the  embankment  rather  than  unnecessarily 
disfigure  the  landscape  in  a  thickly  settled  coun- 
try; they  may  decide  it  is  cheaper  to  pay  over- 
haul *  when  necessary,  than  purchase  extra  right 
of  way  for  borrowpits;  or  they  may  not  wish 
the  material  wasted  on  the  sides  of  cuts  where 
the  soil  is  liable  to  slide  back  into  the  cut  or  in- 

*The  term  "overhaul"  is  used  to  designate  the  length  of  haul 
in  excess  of  the  agreed  length  of  free  haul. 


CONSTRUCTION.  107 

terfere  with  surface  drainage.  The  length  he 
has  to  haul  material  is  a  vital  point  with  the  con- 
tractor. The  length  of  free  haul  that  the  con- 


FIG.   46. 

RIGHT  AND  LEFT  HAND  DUMP  CARS. 


FIG.  48. 

ROTARY  DUMP  CAR. 

tractor  must  perform  is  decided  upon  in  advance, 
and  is  known  at  the  time  the  work  is  bid  upon; 
a  price  is  also  agreed  upon  for  each  100  feet  that 
material  is  hauled  in  excess  of  the  free  haul.* 

*The  length  of  free  haul  is  different  with  different  roads,  but 
one  thousand  feet  is  often  adopted. 


108        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Earth  cuts  are  handled  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  described  for  excavations  for  borrowpits. 
For  large  earth  cuts  the  contractor  often  lays  a 
narrow  gauge  track,  and  conveys  the  material  in 
dump  carts  hauled  by  horses  or  a  steam  engine, 
as  shown  in  Figs.  46,  48  and  49.  The  earth  is 


FIG.  49. 

VIEW  SHOWING  THE  METHOD  OF  DUMPING  A 
ROTARY  DUMP  CAR. 

excavated  and  loaded  into  the  cars  by  picks  and 
shovels  or  steam  shovels,  according  to  the  extent 
of  the  cut  (see  Figs.  51  and  54).  Where  loose 
rock  is  encountered  the  work  is  conducted  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  earth.  Hard  pan  is  a 
cemented  gravel,  and  is  found  in  all  stages  of 
hardness  from  earth  to  solid  rock;  however,  the 
latter  occurs  but  seldom.  It  occurs  sometimes 
in  mass  and  again  in  veins  from  a  few  inches  to 
several  feet  thick;  as  generally  found  it  can  be 
broken  up  with  a  specially  designed  plow  (see 


CONSTRUCTION. 


109 


110 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Fig.   55).     If  it  is  extremely  hard,  it  is  often 
blasted  by  explosives,  but  it  does  not  break  up 


FIG.  54. 

STEAM  SHOVEL  CAR. 


FIG.  55. 

HARD  PAN  PLOW. 

well;  it  "blows  out,77  to  use  a  grader's  expression, 
in  "hatfulls."  It  is  sometimes  removed  by  steam 
shovels  where  the  deposit  is  large  enough  to  war- 
rant one  being  installed.  Solid  rock  excavation 


CONSTRUCTION.  Ill 

affords  the  contractor  opportunity  to  exhibit  his 
skill;  a  cut  which  has  been  cross-sectioned  for 
earth  when  solid  rock  is  encountered,  must  be 
re-cross-sectioned  for  rock.  m  (See  Fig.  56.) 


FIG.  56. 

SHOWING  THE  SLOPES  FOR  AN  EARTH  CUT. 

The  dotted  lines  show  the  slopes  for  an  earth  cut.    The  full  lines  show  the 
slopes  for  a  rock  and  earth  cut. 

The  methods  adopted  for  removing  rock  from 
excavation  may  be  stated  in  a  general  way  as 
follows:  Blasting  with  powder  or  any  other  con- 
venient explosive,  and  reducing  large  pieces  by 
block  holes  and  small  charges.* 

It  is  often  found  cheaper  to  use  explosives 
plentifully  and  blow  the  upper  part  of  the  fcut 
out  beyond  the  slopes,  so  it  does  not  have  to  be 
handled.f 


*The  better  way  and  cheaper  is  to  arrange  a  ginpole  or  cheap 
derrick  in  the  cut,  and  hoist  the  large  pieces  on  to  a  dump  cart 
frame,  of  which  the  sides  are  removed,  and  only  break  up  the 
extremely  large  pieces  by  block  holes  and  blasting. 

|An  extreme  case  of  handling  rock  in  this  way  occurred  some 
years  ago.  Galleries  were  blasted  out  in  the  cut  as  in  a  mine, 
and  a  carload  of  powder  used  at  one  charge,  blowing  practically 
all  the  rock  to  be  excavated  beyond  the  slopes. 


112        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Where  explosives  have  been  used  freely  to 
break  the  mass  of  rock,  steam  shovels  are  some- 
times used  to  load  the  broken  mass  on  cars.  The 
cars,  carts,  and  wagons  mentioned  and  illustrated 
are  used  in  handling  rock. 

When  building  an  embankment  with  rock,  it 
is  generally  safe  to  calculate  that  the  material  in 
the  embankment  will  occupy  twenty-five  per 
cent,  more  space  than  it  did  in  the  cut;  it  is  also 
safe  to  use  slopes  of  one  and  one-quarter  horizon- 
tal to  one  vertical.  But  great  care  must  be  taken 
in  building  the  embankment  to  keep  the  slopes 
at  both  the  end  and  on  the  sides  of  the  dump  as 
even  as  practicable,  so  that  the  stones  when 
dumped  do  not  catch  on  each  other  and  form 
holes  thus  honeycombing  the  bank.  Should  this 
take  place  it  is  liable  to  cause  settlement  of  the 
bank  under  the  track;  if  it  is  on  the  slope  the 
stones  will  in  time  slip  and  take  their  natural 
position  causing  the  side  of  the  bank  to  slide  from 
under  the  track.  To  prevent  this  long  poles 
must  be  kept  at  a  convenient  place  on  the  dump 
to  be  used  by  men  standing  to  one  side  of  the 
rocks  lodged  on  the  slope  and  bear  them  down 
without  being  themselves  in  the  line  of  the  slid- 
ing rock.  This  provision  must  be  made  when 
large  masses  are  put  in  the  damp,  but  it  is  not  so 
necessary  when  stone  is  loaded  in  carts  and  cars 
by  hand. 

Rock  dumps  should  not  be  brought  to  grade, 
but  should  be  built  to  within  three  feet  of  grade 
and  stone  placed  by  hand  to  fill  the  openings; 
this  should  be  followed  by  a  course  of  smaller 


CONSTRUCTION.  113 

stone,  and  on  this  should  be  placed  spauls*  to 
bring  the  embankment  to  grade. 

Tunnels  should  be  avoided  wherever  possible; 
they  are  expensive  to  construct  and  maintain. 
The  alignment  requires  great  care  in  the  instru- 
ment work,  and  a  high  grade  transit  must  be 
used.  While  it  is  not  always  possible  to  lay  a 
tangent  through  a  tunnel,  yet  curves  should  not 
be  used  until  it  has  been  thoroughly  demon- 
strated that  a  tangent  is  not  possible  without 
greatly  increased  cost;  there  should  never  be  a 
level  grade  through  a  tunnel.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  a  short  tunnel,  the  drilling  can  be  done 
by  hand  at  less  expense  than  by  compressed  air 
drills.  The  conditions  met  with  are  so  various 
and  call  for  so  many  different  methods  to  over- 
come the  difficulties  that  no  attempt  is  made 
here  to  go  into  detail.f 

In.  a  general  way,  however,  it  may  be  stated 
that  the  methods  of  excavating  are  as  follows: 

a.  Excavation  may  begin  at  the  bottom  and 
proceed  upward,  or, 

b.  Excavation  may  begin  at  the  top  and  pro- 
ceed downward. 

c.  The  entire  area  of  the  tunnel  may  be  ex- 
cavated. 

d.  A  heart,  kernel  or  core  may  be  left  stand- 
ing.    The  methods  of  timbering  may  differ,  as 
for  instance: 


*"Spauls"  are  the  small  stones  produced  by  blasting  or  the 
larger  stones  broken  by  sledges. 

fFor  more  exhaustive  information  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  work  on  tunneling  by  Henry  S.  Drinker,  E.  M. 

8    Vol.  13 


114        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

e.     The  tunnel  may  be  supported  by  rafter  tim- 
bering, or, 
/.     Longitudinal  bar  timbering  may  be  used, 


FIG.  61. 

EXAMPLE  OF  CRISTINA  METHOD  OP  TUNNELING. 

The  manner  of  building  the  masonry  may  differ, 
thus: 

g.  The  masonry  may  be  begun  at  the  founda- 
tions and  the  abutments  erected  before  the  arch, 
or, 


CONSTRUCTION.  115 

h.  The  arch  may  be  turned  first  and  the  abut- 
ments built  last. 

The  engineer  in  charge  of  a  tunnel  must  keep 
constantly  in  mind  that  there  is  always  a  pres- 
sure, more  or  less  great,  on  the  false  work  ex- 
erted by  the  material  composing  the  hill  or 
mountain  in  all  directions — bottom,  top  and 
sides.  In  Europe  there  are  five  general  methods 
used  to  support  the  roof  of  the  tunnel  during 
construction;  they  are  known  as  the  English, 
Belgian,  German,  Austrian  and  Cristina.  The 
last  has  been  used  by  Italian  engineers  in  the 
Alps,  and  is  fairly  illustrated  by  Fig.  61.  The 
other  European  methods  have  as  many  timber 
braces,  etc.,  but  the  arrangement  is  different;  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  work  mentioned  previ- 
ously for  the  details  of  them. 

One  of  the  methods  adopted  in  America  is  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.  62.  It  was  used  on  the  Cincin- 
nati Southern  Railway.  Air  compressors  and 
drills  are  illustrated  by  Figs.  63  and  65. 

To  hasten  the  construction  of  tunnels,  shafts 
are  often  sunk  and  the  work  carried  on  from  both 
sides  of  the  shaft.  Where  shafts  are  used  or  at 
the  end  of  a  tunnel  where  the  grade  descends 
into  the  tunnel,  pumping  plants  of  liberal  capac- 
ity must  be  installed  to  enable  the  working  head 
to  be  relieved  promptly  of  water,  should  a  large 
quantity  be  encountered.  The  masonry  will  con- 
sist of  the  foundation,  invert,  abutments  and 
arch;  they  must  be  of  the  best  material  and  work- 
manship, laid  with  thin  joints  and  paralleled 
beds  or  courses.  The  backing  must  be  thorough- 


116       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


m 


Fm.  62. 

EXAMPLE  OF  AMERICAN  SYSTEM  OF  TUNNELING 


CONSTRUCTION. 


117 


ly  rammed  between  the  rock  or  soil  and  the  ma- 
sonry, so   that  the   pressure  will  be  uniformly 


FIG.  63. 

AIR  COMPRESSOR. 


FIG.  65. 

ROCK  DRILLS  FOR  TUNNEL  WORK. 

distributed  over  the  masonry.     Openings  must  be 
left  in  the  masonry  for   drainage,  and  recesses 


118       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

must  be  made  at  intervals  for  workmen  to  use 
when  trains  are  passing  through  the  tunnel.  If 
the  tunnel  is  long,  provision  must  be  made  for 
ventilation;  this  is  a  difficult  problem,  and  the 
methods  tried  have  been  numerous,  such  as  shafts, 
a  division  of  a  double  track  tunnel  by  a  parti- 
tion, stacks  with  a  fire  at  the  base,  blowers  op- 
erated by  steam,  compressed  air  or  water  power. 
Fig.  68  illustrates  the  method  of  ventilating  the 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel. 

Attempts  have  been  made  in  Europe  to  use 
iron  framing  to  support  the  roofs  of  tunnels,  also 
for  centers  for  the  masonry;  the  methods  are 
known  as  the  Menne  and  Bziha  Systems.  The 
inventors  claim  they  are  successful,  but  while 
timber  is  plentiful  in  America,  these  systems  are 
.not  likely  to  be  extensively  used. 

The  Detroit  River  Tunnel  for  the  Michigan 
Central  Railroad  is  a  case  in  which  the  tunnel 
was  excavated  by  the  use  of  a  shield  and  com- 
pressed air,  and  the  tunnel  lined  with  cast  iron 
made  in  segments  of  a  circle  and  bolted  together 
as  put  in  position. 

Earth  banks,  at  all  openings,  bridges,  cross- 
ings of  streams  and  places  where  the  water  at 
any  stage  of  a  stream  or  river  reaches  the  em- 
bankment should  be  protected  by  rip  rap;* 
the  amount  of  rip  rap  used  need  not  be  alike  in 
all  cases,  but  a  good  failing  and  one  not  often 
made  is  to  have  too  much.  This  rip  rap  should 
be  a  good  hard  stone  of  the  largest  size  that  can 

*"Rip  rap"  consists  of  broken  stone  placed  on  an  earth  bank 
to  protect  it  from  the  wash  of  a  stream  or  the  action  of  waves. 


CONSTRUCTION.  119 

be  handled,  and  should  at  no  place  be  less  than 
two  feet  thick  measured  at  right  angles  to  the 
slope. 

Where  a  railroad  parallels  a  river  which  is  sub- 
ject to  ice  gorges  and  the  ice  floes  are  large, 
the  rip  rap  should  not  be  less  than  three  feet 
thick,  measured  at  right  angles  to  the  slope;  in 
such  cases,  however,  the  opinions  of  experienced 
men  differ  regarding  the  size  of  rock  to  use.* 

Retaining  walls  should  never  be  built  too  light. 
A  safe  practice  is  to  make  a  retaining  wall  three 
feet  thick  at  the  top  and  batter  the  face  three 
inches  to  the  foot,  or  offs'et  the  back  one  foot  to 
each  four  feet  of  ^height.  Thus,  a  retaining  wall 
fifteen  and  one-lialf  feet  high  would  be  six  feet 
ten  and  one-half,  inches  thick  at  the  base  where 
the  batter  is  made  on  the  face,  and  where  it  is 
built  by  offsets  on  the  back  it  would  be  six 
feet  thick  at  the  base  and  three  feet  thick  at  the 
top  under  the  coping  (see  Figures  69  and  70). 

*A  case  in  point  was  where  a  large  river  in  the  Atlantic  Coasj 
States  of  North  America  was  paralleled  on  one  side  by  a  canal, 
and  on  the  other  side  by  a  railroad.  The  railroad  company  used 
large  stone  hoisted  on  to  dump  carts  by  a  derrick  for  the  rip  rap  * 
with  the  interstices  filled  with  smaller  stone.  The  canal  com- 
pany used  for  rip  rap  what  is  known  by  quarrymen  as  "one  and 
two  men  stone"  dumped  without  placing  by  hand.  During  an 
ice  jam  in  the  river,  the  railroad  embankments  at  numerous 
points  were  carried  away  by  the  ice  floes  catching  on  the  large 
rock  and  carrying  the  rock  out  of  position.  The  action  of  the 
ice  on  the  canal  embankments  was  to  displace  the  small  stone 
where  the  large  floes  struck  it,  and  the  stone  above  at  once  slid 
down  and  replaced  those  carried  away;  the  canal  embankments 
were  not  damaged  to  nearly  as  great  an  extent  as  those  of  the 
railroad.  The  theory  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  canal  was 
"small  stone  make  the  best  rip  rap  to  stand  an  ice  jam  if  you  have 
enough  of  them." 


120        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Openings  should  be  made  in  the  wall  to  allow 
water  to  escape,  if  there  is  any  indication  of  its 
being  likely  to  collect  behind  the  retaining  wall. 
Figure  71  shows  how  contractors  will  take  out  a 
cut  if  not  looked  after. 

Drainage  is  one  of  the  main  features  the  engi- 


Fra.  68. 

VENTILATION  OF  MT.  CENIS  TUNNEL. 

neer  must  keep  in  mind;  he  must  never  lose  an 
opportunity  to  get  a  dry  road  bed;  all  cuts  should, 
therefore,  be  made  with  a  grade  through  them; 
the  character  of  the  material  through  which  a  cut 
is  made  must  carefully  be  examined,  for  if  a  water 
bearing  strata  of  clay  or  gravel  exists,  prompt  nieas- 


CONSTRUCTION. 


121 


ures  must  be  taken  to  prevent  slides.  This  is  done 
sometimes  by  making  trenches  up  the  slope  at 
intervals  through  the  cut  and  filling  these  trenches 


FIGS.  69  AND  70. 

RETAINING  WALLS. 

with  small  stone  leading  to  the  side  ditches,  or, 
better  still,  by  putting  in  an  under  drain.  Ditches 
well  back  from  the  slope  must  be  made  to  carry 


122      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  I^LTLWAYS. 

off  the  surface  water  to  the  end  of  the  cut,  and 
not  allow  it  to  pass  down  the  slope  into  the  cut. 
Borrowpits  must  be  connected  by  ditches  to  give 
drainage  to  openings,  and,  where  there  are  no  bor- 
rowpits,  ditches  must  be  made  to  protect  embank- 
ments from  being  washed  by  water  coming  down 
slopes.  Where  ditching  is  resorted  to,  to  reduce 


FIG.  71. 

Showing  how  a  cut  can  be  full  width  at  grade  and  the  material  taken  out  at 
slope  stakes  and  yet  all  the  material  will  not  be  excavated. 

openings  in  embankments,  ample  bermes  must  be 
left  and  the  changes  in  direction  made  by  easy 
curves.  Where  water  is  allowed  to  come  down 
slopes  against  an  embankment  and  flow  off  by  a 
ditch  through  a  knoll,  the  embankment  must  be 
reinforced  by  earth  and,  if  possible,  stone  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  keep  the  embankment  from 
being  softened  by  the  water  standing  against  it. 


CONSTRUCTION.  123 

It  must  never  be  forgotten  that  a  well  drained 
roadbed  is  affected  less  by  frost  in  winter,  dam- 
aged less  in  rainy  seasons  and  costs  less  to  keep 
in  good  order. 

The  practice  is  to  use  cast  iron  pipe  of  the  style 
used  for  water  mains  in  cities,  for  culverts  and 
small  pile  bent  bridges;  some  roads,  however,  use 
wrought  iron  pipe  for  this  purpose.  Cast  iron  is 
admitted  to  stand  corrosion  better  than  iron  or 
steel,  and  in  time  will  probably  be  used  to  the 
exclusion  of  iron  or  steel  riveted  pipe. 

Streams  of  considerable  size  can  be  carried 
under  or  through  embankments  by  using  several 
lines  of  large  sized  cast  iron  pipe,  and  building 
retaining  walls  of  masonry  or  concrete  at  each 
end  of  the  culvert.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  earth  packed  firmly  around  the  pipe  and 
against  the  retaining  walls,  so  that  the  water  will 
be  forced  to  pass  through  the  pipe,  and  not  be  per- 
mitted to  wash  away  the  embankment.  This  ap- 
plies with  equal  force  to  stone  arched  and  open 
culverts. 

Where  stone  cannot  be  secured  to  pave  the 
spillway*  at  the  discharge  end  of  cast  iron  pipe 
culverts,  the  original  sod  must  not  be  disturbed 
for  a  distance  of  at  least  twenty  feet  on  each  side 
extending  across  the  entire  right  of  way.  This  is 
a  choice  point  for  the  contractor  to  use  for  a  bor- 
rowpit,  and  must  be  looked  after  closely. 

Spillways  and  spaces  between  the  walls  of  stone 
arched  culverts  and  open  culverts  must  be  care- 
fully paved  with  stone  not  less  than  eighteen 

*A  "spillway"  is  the  outlet  of  a  culvert  or  drain. 


124      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

inches  long,  set  on  end  and  close  together,  the  in- 
terstices being  tilled  with  spauls. 

All  open  culverts,  bents  of  pile  and  trestle 
bridges  and  abutments  of  bridges  should  be  at 
right  angles  to  the  track.  If  for  any  reason  this 
cannot  be  done,  the  bridge  seat  must  be  so  arranged 
that  the  end  of  the  bridge  will  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  track. 

The  location  of  the  bents  for  pile  and  trestle 
bridges  must  be  carefully  made;  this  requires 
the  center  line  of  the  railroad  to  be  given  for  each 
bent,  the  axis  of  the  bent  transversely  to  the  line 
of  the  railroad;  and  these  points  must  be  carefully 
referenced  by  hubs  which  will  not  be  destroyed 
by  contractors,  workmen  or  timber  haulers.  In 
giving  the  location  for  driving  the  piling  and  the 
cut  off  for  the  piling,  the  work  must  be  done  de- 
liberately and  carefully,  and  all  work  of  line  and 
elevation  re-run  and  checked. 

Bridge  abutments  and  piers  require  the  greatest 
care  in  location;  steel  tapes  only  should  be  used, 
and  they  should  be  used  with  a  spring  balance. 
The  tape  should  be  stretched  on  a  level  piece  of 
ground  to  the  same  tension  and  two  hubs  driven 
at  the  distance  measured  on  the  sight  of  the  bridge 
and  the  distance  measured  between  the  hubs. 
Generally  the  length  of  spans  is  decided  upon  first. 
In  such  case  the  length  of  the  spans  should  be 
carefully  measured  on  level  ground  and  hubs 
driven  at  the  proper  distances,  and  the  measure- 
ment with  a  long  steel  tape  and  balance  taken  in 
the  reverse  order  mentioned.  Where  the  streams 
are  of  considerable  width,  the  piers  will  have  to 


CONSTRUCTION.  125 

be  located  by  triangulation,  using  a  high  grade 
transit  for  the  purpose. 

The  foundations  for  pile  and  trestle  bridges  are 
secured  by  driving  piles  in  the  ground  and  sawing 


FIG.  72. 

STEAM  PILE  DRIVER. 


them  off  at  the  proper  elevations  for  the  caps  of 
pile  bridges  and  sills  of  trestle  bridges;  figure 
72  gives  a  view  of  a  pile-driver.  The  experience 
of  the  engineer  is  called  into  play  to  decide  when 


126       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

a  pile  has  been  driven  sufficiently;  the  timber 
in  a  pile  can  be  shattered  by  over-driving 
so  it  will  possess  very  little  strength  to 
support  a  load;  neither  will  it  support  the 
load  if  not  driven  sufficiently.  Rules  are 
given  by  Trautwine,  Wellington  and  others  re- 
garding this  subject;  a  rule  much  in  use  is  to  stop 
driving  when  six  blows  with  a  two-thousand 
pound  hammer  falling  a  distance  of  twenty  feet 
fail  to  drive  the  pile  over  one  inch.  This  rule, 
however,  must  be  used  with  judgment.  There 
have  been  cases  where  piles  would  settle  a  foot 
at  each  drop  of  the  hammer,  and,  if  left  over 
night,  they  could  not  be  started  by  the  hammer, 
and  yet  these  piles  are  today  successfully  support- 
ing heavy  trains  on  a  trunk  line.*  Again  there 
are  frequent  cases  where  piling  could  not  be 
secured  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  soft  strata  of  cedar  and  tamarack  swamps 
where  the  material  did  not  possess  the  property 
of  closing  around  a  pile  and  supporting  it  as  in 
the  preceding  case.  In  such  cases  the  support  for 
the  roadbed  has  been  secured  by  laying  long  logs 
transversely  to*  the  line  of  the  road  close  to- 
gether, and  building  an  embankment  on  them.f 
There  are  yet  other  cases  where  the  soil  is  of  a 
nature  that  during  a  prolonged  season  of  dry,  hot 
weather  the  soil  becomes  so  hard  that  a  pile  is 
with  difficulty  driven  into  it,  yet  during  the  rainy 
season  this  soil  becomes  soft  and  spongy.  Great 

*This  case  was  in  marshy  ground  where  quick  sand  settling 
around  the  pile  gave  it  the  necessary  support. 
fThis  is  known  as  corduroying  a  swamp. 


CONSTRUCTION.  127 

difficulty  is  encountered  in  such  soils  to  get  the 
piling  down  a  sufficient  depth  during  dry  weather 
to  support  the  load  during  wet  seasons  and  not 
shatter  the  pile  by  overdriving. 

The  foundations  for  abutments  and  piers  are 
secured  in  a  number  of  ways;  in  a  general  way 
they  can  be  given  as  follows: 

(a)  Where  a  pier  is  built  outside  of  a  stream 
during  low  water  the  earth  is  excavated  below  the 
water  line,  or  to  the  rock;  the  water  is  kept  out 
by  pumps;  where  rock  is  not  reached  or  a  firm 
soil  capable  of  bearing  a  weight  of  four  to  five 
tons  per  square  foot,  piling  is  driven,  the  tops 
sawed  off  and  a  timber  grillage*  built  on  top  to 
carry  the  masonry.     Recently  a  mass  of  concrete 
about  six  feet  thick,  in  which  the  tope  of  the  pil- 
ing project  three  feet,  has  been  used  instead  of 
timber  grillage. 

(b)  Where  a  pier  is  located  in  a  stream  of  mod- 
erate depth  of  water,  sheet  piling  is  driven  in  two 
rows  around  the  foundation,  and  the  space  filled 
with  clay  and  rammed  tight  and  the  foundation 
secured  as  described  above.     In  greater  depth  of 
water,  piling  is  driven  and  the  tops  sawed  off  level 
at  or  near  the  bed  of  the  stream,  and  a  caisson 
sunk  on  to  the  piling  and  the  masonry  built  in  the 
caisson.     Where  the  bed  of  the  stream  is  rock, 
the  foundation  has  been  secured  by  making  the 
bottom  of  the  caisson  to  correspond  with  the  ir- 
regularities of  the  rock  and  sinking  the  caisson 

*' 'Grillage"  consists  of  square  timbers  placed  on  top  of  the 
piling  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  masonry  evenly  on  each 
pile. 


128      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

directly  on  to  the  rocky  bed  of  the  stream. 
Where  there  is  great  depth  of  water  or  an  allu- 
vial formation  subject  to  changes  of  channel  by 
floods,  the  pneumatic  caisson  is  resorted  to.  * 

All  piers  and  abutments  require  rip  rapping  and 
other  necessary  measures  taken  to  protect  them 
from  damage  by  ice  where  the  stream  is  subject 
to  ice  jams. 

The  masonry  for  piers,  abutments  and  culverts, 
need  not  be  of  a  quality  known  as  first-class;  but 
it  must  be  well  bedded  and  bonded  and  built 
solid,  no  voids  being  allowed.  The  bonding  must 
apply  to  the  backing  as  well  as  the  face  stone,  so 
as  to  approach  as  near  as  possible  to  a  monolith. 
The  stone  used  should  be  large  and  the  coping 
thick,  and  of  a  quality  which  will  not  deteriorate 
on  exposure  to  the  weather,  or  crush  under  the 
weight  which  it  will  have  to  support. 

Where  a  stream  is  shallow,  and  subject  to  sud- 
den overflow  and  drift,  which  would  carry  away 
false  work,  low  water  tracks  are  used  to  extend  the 
road.  These  low  water  tracks  leave  the  located 
line  at  each  side  of  the  valley  and  when  possible  are 
laid  parallel  to  and  a  sufficient  distance  from  the 
located  line,  so  that  they  can  be  used  to  deliver  ma- 
terial required  for  constructing  the  bridge.  The  low 
water  track  is  carried  across  the  steam  on  a  low 
trestle  securely  anchored  to  the  bed  of  the  stream 
so  that  when  a  rise  in  the  river  takes  place  it  will 
not  be  washed  away.  This  low  water  track  per- 
mits the  rapid  extension  of  the  line  and  gives 

*This  is  a  large  subject  and  the  reader  is  referred  ito  the  liter- 
ature treating  of  it  mentioned  hereafter. 


CONSTRUCTION.  129 

facilities  to  forward  track  and  construction  ma- 
terial, and  it  has  even  been  used  in  operating  the 
road  for  some  months  before  the  bridging  was 
completed.  High  water  in  streams  of  this  nature 
seldom  interferes  with  the  operating  of  trains  for 
more  than  a  few  hours  at  a  time,  and  the  drift 
would  carry  away  any  trestle  bridge  or  false  work 
which  obstructs  the  stream. 

The  approach  to  a  bridge  from  a  new  bank 
should  be  supported  on  a  mud  sill;  after  the  em- 
bankment has  fully  settled,  piling  or  masonry 
can  be  used  to  replace  the  mud  sill  as  desired. 
Masonry  can  be  saved  by  omitting  an  abutment 
and  making  the  approach  to  the  first  pier  on  a 
trestle,  or  better  still,  a  plate  girder. 

The  grade  must  be  surfaced  true  before  ballast 
is  put  on;  or  for  track,  if  the  ballasting  is  to  be 
done  after  track  laying.  For  this  purpose  the 
engineers  give  center  and  grade  stakes,  the  grade 
stakes  being  placed  every  one  hundred  feet  on 
tangents,  and  every  fifty  feet  on  curves.  Two 
grade  stakes  are  required  for  each  center  stake; 
one  five  feet  each  side  of  the  center;  on  curves 
the  grading  should  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
elevation  to  be  given  the  outer  rail.  The  inside 
grade  stake  to  be  depressed  as  much  below  the 
grade  line  as  the  elevation  to  be  given  the  outer 
rail,  and  the  outside  grade  stake  to  be  raised  the 
same  amount* 

Monthly  estimates  are  made  as  the  work  prog- 

*This  is  the  method  adopted  by  one  of  the  Eastern  Trunk 
Lines  of  North  America  and  is  believed  by  some  to  cause  a  train 
to  ride  more  evenly  when  entering  and  leaving  a  curve. 

9    Vol.  13 


130       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


resses  and  progress  profiles  made,  showing  the 
work  done  both  in  excavation  and  embankment. 
The  resident  engineer  takes  account  of  the  num- 
ber of  men,  teams,  etc.,  in  each  gang  as  he  passes 
over  the  work  daily  and  makes  a  monthly  report, 
as  per  accompanying  form  (7 2 A),  to  the  division 


COLUMBIAN  /?*  Co                  &TOCKDALE  BRANCH 

FORCC      R£  FOR.  T  rOR  THE  MONTH  OF             190 

THE  rOLLOWINC.  NUMBERS   Or  MEN,TCAMS.£TC  REPRESENT  TH£  AMOUNT  WORKING.  ONE  DAI. 

SECTIONS 

PLOUGH 
TE  AMS 

SCRAPER 
TE  AMS 

WHEEL  CD 
SCRAPER 
TEAMS 

DUMP 
WAGONS 

FOREMEN 

LABORERS 

REMARKS 

FIG.  72A. 

FORM  OF  FORCE  REPORT. 

engineer.  *  At  the  end  of  each  month  the  resident 
engineer  gives  line  and  grade  over  all  work  done 
during  the  current  month,  .and  the  division  en- 
gineer goes  over  the  work  and  takes  notes  of  the 
stations  between  which  work  has  been  done  dur- 
ing the  current  month.  The  record  he  keeps  is 
in  the  following  form  (72B). 

The  resident  engineer  furnishes  the  quantities 

*This  report  is  generally  called  a  "force  report." 


CONSTRUCTION. 


131 


in  a  report  to  the  division  engineer,  and  he  com- 
pares their  quantities  with  those  calculated  in  his 
office  from  the  center  heights  and  slope  of  the 
ground  and  with  the  force  account. 

The  division  engineer  forwards  the  estimates 
for  sections  and  also  the  force  account  for  sec- 
tions to  the  chief  engineer,  who  compares  them 
with  the  data  secured  from  the  preliminary  survey 


££ 


CL- 


'06 


HAND      PAGE 


//;  r  • 


HAND 


FIG.  72B. 

FORM  OF  ESTIMATE  BOOK. 

and  location  and  what  is  being  accomplished  by 
similar  gangs  of  men  on  other  divisions.  By  this 
method  all  parties  are  protected  from  charges  of 
favoritism,  and  anyone  returning  the  wrong  quan- 
tities will  be  discovered;  where  the  surveys  have 
been  made  as  outlined  previously,  the  chief  en- 
gineer has  the  means  of  determining  the  approx- 
imate quantities  and  classification. 

The  subject  of  classification  of  material  is  one 


132       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

about  which  no  two  engineers  will  give  the  same 
decision,  though  they  may  not  materially  differ. 
There  is  no  clearly  marked  line  between  earth  and 
loose  rock,  or  earth  and  hard  pan,  and  there  are 
cases  where  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  loose 
rock  or  solid  rock.  The  method  of  estimating 
given  here  enables  a  second  engineer  to  examine 
the  work  and  intelligently  criticise  the  opinion  of 
the  ojie  making  the  estimate.  The  manner  of 
estimating  and  calculating  quantities  varies  with 
different  roads.  There  have  been  cases  where 
the  resident  engineer  cross-sectioned  the  work, 
and  each  month  made  a  report  that  the  work  was 
completed  between  given  stations.  The  quanti- 
ties were  calculated  at  the  office  of  a  division 
engineer,  and  also  the  estimates  made  at  the 
same  office  from  the  notes  of  the  resident  en- 
gineer. Under  this  method  the  resident  engineer 
can  look  after  a  longer  residency;  but  the  force 
in  the  division  engineer's  office  is  increased  and 
the  advantage  of  a  check  on  estimates  between 
the  two  offices  is  lost. 

Borrowpits  should  be  cross-sectioned  both  be 
fore  work  is  commenced  and  after  its  comple- 
tion.. 

The  amount  to  be  paid  for  overhaul  is  calculated 
differently  on  different  systems.  The  method 
generally  adopted  is  to  ascertain  the  free  haul 
first,  and  then  ascertain  the  center  of  mass  in  the 
cut  beyond  the  free  haul,  and  the  center  of  mass 
in  the  fill  beyond  the  free  haul.  The  distance  A. 
B.  (see  Fig.  73)  less  the  free  haul  is  the  length  of 
the  overhaul,  and  the  cubic  yards  of  the  mass  C. 


CONSTRUCTION. 


133 


D.  E.  and  F.  in  the  excavation  is  the  amount 
hauled.  Another  method  is  to  find  the  center  of 
mass  of  the  entire  amount  in  the  excavation 


FIG.  73. 

VIEW  OVERHAUL. 

hauled  into  the  embankment,  and  the  center  of 
mass  in  the  embankment  (see  Fig.  74).  From 
this  distance  A.  B.  deduct  the  length  of  free  haul 


FIG.  74. 

VIEW  OVERHAUL 

and  use  for  the  amount  overhauled  the  entire 
amount  taken  out  of  the  excavation. 

Pipe  culverts  are  paid  for  by  a  price  per  ton 
miles  hauled,  and  a  price  per  ton  for  placing,  and 
the  excavation  for  bedding  them. 


134      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Stone  arched  and  open  culverts  are  paid  for  at 
a  price  per  cubic  yard  for  the  excavation  for 
foundation,  and  the  masonry;  the  paving  is  paid 
for  by  the  square  yard  of  surface  paved. 

Bridging  with  timber  is  estimated  as  follows: 

Piling  is  estimated  at  the  length  swung  in  to  the 
leads  where  the  railroad  company  furnishes  the 
bill  of  material  and  specifies  the  length  of  piling; 
otherwise  the  contractor  is  paid  for  the  length  of 
piling  from  the  point  to  cutoff.  Square  timber  is  es- 
timated by  the  number  of  feet,  board  measure,  in 
the  completed  structure;  a  different  price  is  paid 
for  pine  and  oak,  the  quantities  of  each  being 
kept  separate.  Iron  such  as  bolts,  spikes  and 
other  wrought  iron  is  estimated  by  the  pound, 
and  cast  iron  washers  and  spreaders  the  same 
way.  False  work  is  sometimes  included  in  the 
price  for  an  iron  or  steel  bridge;  in  cases  where 
the  railroad  company  puts  it  up  to  get  construc- 
tion material  to  the  front,  it  is  estimated  the 
same  as  for  wooden  bridging  but  the  price  may 
be  different.  Retaining  walls  are  estimated  for 
by  the  cubic  yard.  Rip  rap  is  estimated  for  by 
the  cubic  yard. 

After  the  completion  of  the  sections,  a  careful 
final  estimate  is  made,  but  final  payment  is  gen- 
erally withheld  until  track  is  laid  over  the  work. 

Cuts  and  fills  having  been  made,  culverts, 
trestle  bridges  and  false  work  erected  and  depot 
grounds  graded  a  sufficient  distance  from  the 
junction  with  the  present  railroad,  the  track  lay- 
ing force  is  in  a  position  to  commence  work.  The 
division  engineers  at  the  front  estimate  the  date 


CONSTRUCTION.  135 

the  track  layers  will  reach  their  respective  divis- 
ions, and  look  over  their  divisions  carefully  with 
regard  to  the  amount  of  material  to  move,  and 
the  forces  employed  in  grading  and  bridging. 
Tardy  contractors  are  urged  to  greater  activity 
and  every  effort  made  to  secure  the  completion 
of  the  grading  and  bridging  before  the  track  lay- 
ing forces  arrive.  The  chief  engineer  comes  out 
over  the  line  to  give  a  personal  inspection  and 
hurry  forward  the  work  on  heavy  sections. 

The  manner  in  which  the  track  is  laid  depends 


FIG.  75. 

TRACK  LAYING  OR  IRON  CAR. 

on  the  length  of  the  new  road  and  the  character 
of  the  country.  One  method  is  as  follows:  A 
construction  train  brings  the  material  to  the  front, 
and  the  ties  are  unloaded  and  hauled  forward 
with  teams,  and  placed  on  the  grade;  the  rails 
are  brought  to  the  front  on  the  cars  which  were 
used  to  bring  them  from  the  material  yard.  The 
necessary  quantities  of  fishplates,  bolts  and  spikes 
are  placed  on  each  car  to  lay  the  rails  contained 
on  the  car.  The  rails  are  drawn  over  the  end  of 
the  car  and  placed  on  a  track-laying  or  iron  car 


136       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

(see  Fig.  75).  This  car  is  pushed  forward  as  fast 
as  the  rails  are  laid,  the  joints  are  half  bolted  and 
the  rails  quarter  spiked;  when  the  last  pair  of 
rails  is  drawn  off  the  iron  car,  the  engine  pushes 
forward  the  train  of  construction  material,  and  the 
iron  car  is  reloaded.  This  operation  is  repeated 
until  the  head  car  of  the  construction  train  has 
been  unloaded  of  rails,  when  the  entire  train  is 
taken  back  to  its  siding  and  the  empty  car  left 
there,  and  the  next  car  loaded  with  rails  becomes 
the  first  or  head  car  next  to  the  iron  car.  *  While 
the  above  is  being  done  a  gang  of  men  is  placing 
the  splices  or  fishplates,  bolts,  nuts,  nutlocks,  and 
spikes.  Another  gang  is  throwing  off  the  ties  as 
fast  as  the  teams  can  haul  them  ahead,  and  wher- 
ever the  grade  will  permit,  the  ties  are  loaded 
direct  from  the  cars  to  the  wagons.  By  this 
method  the  ties  are  not  hauled  over  five  hundred 
feet.  Behind  the  construction  train  is  a  gang  of 
men  completing  the  spiking.  An  average  of  one 
mile  per  day  has  been  made  in  a  good  country  by 
this  method.  The  construction  train  at  the  front 
is  made  up  as  follows:  The  front  cars  are  loaded 
with  rails,  splices,  bolts  and  spikes,  there  being  a 
sufficient  number  of  cars  to  contain  the  necessary 
material  for  one  day's  work.  Behind  the  iron 

*Where  the  run  to  a  side  track  is  too  long  and  will  cause  de- 
lay in  delivering  track  material  to  the  track  layers,  two  iron  cars 
are  used  and  the  rails  thrown  from  the  cars  to  the  ground  along 
side  of  the  construction  train;  the  train  pulls  back  and  the  rails 
are  loaded  on  the  iron  car,  the  loaded  iron  car  is  taken  to  the 
front,  the  empty  one  having  been  taken  off  the  track  by  being 
turned  over  and  left  standing  on  its  side;  the  construction  train 
is  then  brought  forward  and  another  lot  of  rails  thrown  off  to 
load  the  second  iron  car. 


CONSTRUCTION.  137 

cars  come  the  cars  loaded  with  ties;  there  being 
enough  of  these  also  for  one  day's  work;  these 
are  followed  by  the  boarding  cars.  By  this 
method  the  only  switching  required  is  to  set  the 
head  iron  cars  as  unloaded  on  the  side  track.  When 
the  day's  work  is  completed,  the  train  is  hauled 
back  to  the  first  siding,  and  the  boarding  cars  left 
there  while  the  engine  takes  the  empties  to  the 
material  yard  and  returns  with  another  train  load 
for  the  next  day's  work.  Where  the  route  of  the 
new  road  is  in  a  rough  country  which  will  not 
permit  the  ties  to  be  hauled  ahead  by  teams  the 
manner  of  handling  the  ties  is  as  follows:  Two 
iron  cars  are  used,  the  first  one  is  loaded  with  six 
to  eight  rails  and  the  necessary  fastenings,  and 
on  top  of  braces  placed  above  the  rails  are  placed 
the  necessary  ties  to  support  the  rails  without 
bending  them  while  the  construction  train  passes 
over.  This  car  is  pushed  to  the  front  by  men  or 
hauled  by  horses.  While  the  track  material  on 
the  first  car  is  being  laid,  the  second  car  is  being 
loaded.  The  empty  car  is  thrown  off  the  track 
and  stood  on  its  side  to  permit  the  loaded  one  to 
pass.  The  ties  for  the  iron  car  are  loaded  on  the 
car  containing  the  rails  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
rails  can  be  pulled  from  under  them;  the  ties  to 
be  placed  under  the  rails  after  the  construction 
train  passes  over  are  unloaded  as  the  train  pro- 
ceeds. Behind  the  construction  train  there  is  a 
gang  placing  the  ties  omitted  at  the  front.  This 
gang  also  finishes  the  spiking. 

In  the  construction  of  track,  machines  for  the 
purpose   are   used   called    "Track    Laying    Ma- 


138       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

chines."  The  Holman  and  the  Harris  machines 
are  the  principal  ones.  The  Holman  machine 
(see  Fig.  76)  is  composed  of  a  series  of  tramways 
30  feet  long  and  about  20  inches  wide,  fitted  with 
heavy  iron  rollers.  These  tramways  are  attached 
to  the  sides  of  ordinary  flat  cars,  without  any 
changes,  and  are  supported  by  adjustable  iron 
stakes  that  fit  into  the  pockets  on  the  sides  of  the 


FIG.  76. 

HOLMAN'S  TRACK  LAYING  MACHINE. 

cars,  and,  being  connected,  operate  the  full  length 
of  the  train,  the  same  as  one  continuous  tram- 
way. The  ties  and  rails  are  thrown  upon  these 
tramways  and  rolled  down  to  the  front,  where 
men  receive  and  place  them  in  position  on  the 
roadbed.  The  ties  come  down  on  the  right  hand 
side  of  the  train  and  the  rails  on  the  opposite 
side.  On  the  tie  side,  a  chute,  supported  by  a 
wire  cable,  runs  out  thirty-five  feet  in  front  of 
the  train,  which  allows  the  men  handling  ties 
to  be  one  panel  ahead  of  the  men  handling  rails 


CONSTRUCTION.  139 

and  consequently  out  of  each  other's  way.  A 
train  of  ten  cars,  viz:  six  of  ties,  three  of  rails 
and  the  tool  car  will  carry  all  material  required 
for  a  half -day's  work,  and  from  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  of  track.  One  and  one-half  miles 
of  track  per  day  can  be  laid  with  this  machine,  with 
from  forty  to  fifty  men  and  a  capable  foreman, 
provided  the  Railroad  Company  can  deliver  the 
material  at  the  front  fast  enough  and  in  proper 
shape.  (Some  expert  foremen  have  laid  two 
miles  of  track  per  day. )  This  includes  full  tieing, 
laying  the  rails  in  position,  joint,  quarter  and 
center  spiking,  putting  on  the  fishplates  or  angle- 
bars  and  two  bolts  through  the  same.  This  leaves 
the  track  in  safe  condition  for  the  construction 
train,  and  the  balance  of  the  work  is  finished  be- 
hind the  train  without  reference  to  or  use  of  the 
machine.  As  fast  as  the  panels  are  laid  the  train 
moves  forward,  30  feet  at  a  time,  carrying  all 
material  with  it,  leaving  nothing  scattered  along 
the  line.  The  main  object  of  the  machine  is  to 
dispense  with  the  use  of  teams  in  the  distribution 
of  material  and  also  to  reduce  the  cost  of  rail- 
way building.  On  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad 
8,400  feet  of  track  was  laid  in  eight  hours  actual 
working  time  with  one  foreman  and  sixty-six  men 
as  follows:  In  front  of  machine  1  tie  man,  8 
tie  carriers,  2  bolters,  4  spikers,  1  chute  man,  6 
rail  carriers  and  2  nippers.  On  train,  2  men 
unloading  rails,  2  men  pushing  rails,  16  men 
handling  ties.  Behind  train,  2  spacers,  8  spikers, 
3  bolters,  4  nippers,  4  liners  and  1  peddler.  On 
this  day  the  boarding  train  was  about  five  miles 


140       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

in  the  rear;  two  hours  were  consumed  in  going 
to  and  from  work  and  making  up  train,  leaving 
eight  hours  actual  working  time. 

The  Harris  machine  (see  Fig.  77)  consists  of  a 


Fig.  77. 

HARRIS'  TRACK  LAYING  MACHINE. 

continuous  tramway  or  track  (about  eight  feet  six 
inch  gauge)  laid  and  spiked  firmly  upon  the  top 
of  a  construction  train  of  platform  cars.  Upon 
this  tram  track  runs  a  small  automatic  car,  de- 
signed for  carrying  ties.  Cast-iron  rollers  are 
placed  in  the  center  of  all  cars  that  are  used  for 
carrying  rails.  In  fitting  up  cars  for  the  machine 
five  ties  (ten  and  one-half  feet  long)  are  fastened 
firmly  across  each  car.  Eails  are  then  selected 
from  those  to  be  laid  in  the  permanent  track,  and 
spiked  to  the  ties,  thus  making  a  track  (eight 
feet  six  inch  gauge)  thirty  feet  long  on  each  car 
of  the  train;  short  adjustable  pieces  of  rails  are 
placed  between  each  pair  of  cars  to  connect  the 
permanent  rails,  and  which  permit  of  their  easy 
removal  after  the  train  has  been  unloaded,  and 
their  ready  replacement  again  when  the  next 
urain  comes  to  the  front.  The  front  or  pioneer 
car  has  a  frame  work  or  extension  permanently 
fastened  to  it,  which  extends  the  tram  track  about 


CONSTRUCTION.  141 

twenty  feet  ahead  of  the  train.  Across  the.  front 
end  of  these  extension  timbers  is  fastened  a  double 
roller,  about  one  foot  lower  than  the  cast-iron 
rollers  on  the  pioneer  and  construction  cars,  for 
receiving  and  carrying  the  rails  after  leaving  the 
train.  The  small  automatic  tie  car  has  a  mova- 
ble top  which  unloads  the  ties  automatically  cross- 
ways  the  roadbed,  enough  at  a  time  for  sixty  feet 
of  track.  Kails  are  loaded  on  the  forward  cars  of 
the  train,  being  piled  between  the  cast-iron  rollers 
and  the  tram  track,  half  on  each  side  of  the  car. 
On  each  car  used  for  carrying  rails  sufficient  joint 
fastenings,  spikes,  bolts,  etc.,  are  loaded  for  use 
of  the  track  laying  force  in  front  of  the  train. 
The  balance  of  the  materials  required  to  finish 
the  track  are  carried  on  the  tool  and  supply  car 
next  to  the  locomotive,  and  are  distributed  from 
this  car  as  required.  Ties  are  loaded  crossways 
the  rear  cars  of  the  train  or  those  nearest  the  lo- 
comotive. Sufficient  "short  rails"  for  keeping 
joints  even  on  curves  are  carried  on  the  pioneer 
car,  and  are  always  convenient  when  required. 
When  the  train  arrives  at  the  "front"  it  is 
coupled  to  the  pioneer  car  (which  always  remains 
at  the  end  of  the  track).  The  men,  in  going  for- 
ward from  the  tool  car  (where  they  generally 
ride)  drop  the  short  connecting  rails  into  place, 
to  make  the  tram  track  continuous  and  the  ma- 
chine is  ready  for  work.  There  is  absolutely  no 
time  lost  during  the  day  in  getting  the  machine 
ready  for  work,  or  in  removing  any  apparatus 
when  the  cars  are  unloaded.  Ties  enough  for 
two  lengths  of  rails,  or  sixty  feet  of  track,  are 


142      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

loaded  upon  the  automatic  tie  car  and  run  on  the 
continuous  track  over  all  the  cars  of  rails  to  the 
front  end  of  the  extension  timbers,  when  the 
front  wheels  of  the  car  come  suddenly  in  contact 
with  the  stop  block.  The  top  frame  of  the  car 
(which  moves  oh  rollers)  suddenly  darts  forward 
and  dumps  the  ties  instantly  crossways  the  road- 
bed, and  scatters  them  a  distance  of  from  twenty 
to  forty-five  feet  ahead  of  the  last  track  laid.  The 
tie  car  is  immediately  run  back  and  reloaded  with 
ties,  and  returns  in  -time  for  the  next  sixty  feet 
layout.  The  ties  are  immediately  put  in  their 
right  places  on  the  roadbed.  Four  rails,  two  for 
each  side  of  the  track  are  bolted  together  on  the 
top  of  the  train,  and  are  run  from  the  rollers  of 
the  construction  cars  to  the  double  roller  which 
carries  them  on  a  down  grade  until  they  are  re- 
ceived on  the  roller  of  a  low  trestle  or  "dolly," 
which  assists  in  carrying  them  on  the  same  de- 
clining grade  to  the  point  opposite  where  they 
are  to  be  laid  into  the  track.  The  men  on  the 
ground  immediately  drop  them  on  the  ties  and 
heel  them  into  the  angle  plates  (which  have  been 
fastened  loosely  to  the  last  rails  laid).  Three 
ties  on  tangents  and  four  on  curves  are  quickly 
spiked,  and  the  train  moves  forward  over  the 
sixty  feet  of  track  just  laid.  The  process  is  re- 
peated until  the  work  is  finished.  The  balance 
of  the  spiking,  bolting  and  lining  the  track  is 
performed  after  the  train  passes  over  it.  When 
it  is  desired  to  lay  a  track  at  a  speed  of  two  and 
one-fourth  or  two  and  one-half  miles  per  day,  or 
at  a  speed  of  only  one  or  one  and  one-fourth  miles 


CONSTRUCTION.  143 

per  day,  the  above  method  of  working"  the  ma- 
chine is  varied  somewhat  to  suit  the  circum- 
stances. On  the  Chicago,  Kansas  &  Nebraska 
Railway  an  average  of  2.16  miles  of  track  per  day 
was  made  in  laying  288  miles  of  track.  The 
maximum  grade  was  52  feet  per  mile.  The  train 
was  made  up  as  follows  for  one-half  day's  work 
Harris  Track  Lay  ing  Machine: 

5  cars  of  steel — 76  rails  per  car. 
5  cars  of  ties — 270  ties  per  car. 

10  cars  of  ties — for  back  filling  two  engines, 
one  tool  car,  one  caboose,  one  car  of  crossing 
plank,  one  car  of  telegraph  material. 

The  force  employed  consisted  of  one  foreman 
and  139  men  as  follows: 

10  men  on  the  cars  delivering  the  ties  over  the 
front  of  the  machine. 

10  men  on  the  car  delivering  the  steel  over  the 
front  of  the  machine. 

35  men  in  front  of  the  machine  placing  ties, 
handling  steel,  putting  on  fishplates  (i  bolted) 
and  spiking  two  ties  to  a  rail. 

14  men  handling  ties  out  of  the  cars,  and  on 
the  grade,  placing  them  under  the  steel  behind 
the  train. 

60  men  back  spiking  and  bolting. 
5  men  lining  track. 
5  men  surfacing  track. 

The  telegraph  line  was  kept  up  with  the  track 
layers,  poles  were  placed  thirty  to  a  mile;  there 
were  two  wires  put  up.  The  force  consisted  of: 

8  men  digging  holes. 

3  men  setting  poles. 


144      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

1  man*  putting  on  cross-arms. 

1  man  on  the  train  distributing  material. 

2  men  stringing  wires. 

The  methods  above  described  are  varied 
according  to  the  opinions  of  track  laying  fore- 
men; the  ties  can  be  hauled  by  teams  if  desired 
where  either  machine  is  used.  The  track  may  be 
only  half  tied  ahead  of  the  construction  train 
and  other  ties  put  in  behind  the  train;  these  ties 
can  be  brought  to  the  front  by  another  train, 
thus  lightening  the  load  on  a  heavy  ascending 
grade.  The  skill  of  the  track  laying  foreman  is 
shown  in  adapting  his  appliances  to  the  chang- 
ing physical  conditions  of  the  line.* 

A  gang  surfacing  with  earth  or  gravel  as  cir- 
cumstances permit  or  ballasting  and  surfacing 
follows  the  track  layers.  The  details  of  ballast- 
ing and  surfacing  and  track  work  in  general  are 
taken  up  in  another  chapter. 

Side  tracks  for  depots  should  be  graded  by  the 
contractor  when  grading  the  main  line,  and  the 
track  laying  force  should  lay  the  sidings  which 
they  will  require  in  handling  their  construction 
material  and  boarding  cars.  Track  layers  will 
often  have  to  lay  temporary  sidings  where  depots 
are  not  located  close  together  to  avoid  delays  in 
coming  back  to  switch  the  empty  cars  out  and 
put  loaded  cars  in  the  construction  train. 

The  water  supply  having  been  decided  upon,  a 
force  of  men  is  at  once  put  to  work  behind  the 


*Appendix  J  gives  details  of  the  late  practice  in  laying  tracks, 
curving  rails,  etc. 


CONSTRUCTION.  145 

track  layers.*  The  means  of  securing  a  water 
supply  call  forth  the  same  skill  as  is  displayed 
in  obtaining  that  for  a  city,  only  of  course,  not 
on  so  extensive  a  scale.  Springs,  streams,  im- 
pounding reservoirs,  open  wells  both  shallow  and 
deep,  artesian  wells,  siphons,  are  called  into  use 
as  conditions  suggest.  The  methods  adopted  to 
elevate  the  water  are  as  various  as  the  source  of 
supply;  windmills,  steam  pumps,  pumps  operated 
by  gas,  and  hot  air  engines,  hydraulic  rams,  or 
gravity  from  a  supply  in  the  hills  or  mountains 
adjoining  may  be  adopted.  The  plant  has  to  be 
built  so  that  the  supply  will  not  be  cut  short  dur- 
ing a  severe  winter,  and  must  be  cheap  to  operate. 

The  fuel  supply  has  to  be  attended  to  at  the 
same  time  as  the  water  supply  is  being  looked 
after.  Coal  sheds  and  chutes  are  usually  located 
near  a  water  station;  this  enables  the  train  to 
take  coal  and  water  with  the  minimum  amount 
of  delay.  Delays  to  trains  can  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum  by  having  the  water  tank  or  crane  and 
coal  sheds  so  located  that  west  or  north  bound 
trains  can  take  on  their  supply  when  stopping  at 
stations,  east  or  south  bound  trains  doing  the 
same  at  another  set  of  stations. 

While  the  water  and  coal  supply  is  being  pro- 
vided for,  the  turntables  must  be  placed  in  posi- 
tion as  quickly  as  possible. 

Noxt  comes  the  erection  of  depots,  warehouses 
and  platforms,  and  these  are  followed  by  the 

*It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  put  them  to  work  ahead  of 
track  to  secure  a  supply  of  water  for  the  construction  train  crew 
and  engine. 

IO    Vol.  13 


146      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

roundhouses,  shops  and  section  houses.  The 
hotels  and  eating  houses,  when  erected  by  the 
railway  company,  are  among  the  last  to  be  put 
up.  The  offices  for  the  division  superintendents 
and  their  forces  often  form  part  of  a  depot  or 
hotel,  seldom  a  separate  building. 

The  telegraph  line  is  always  kept  to  the  front, 
and  an  instrument  and  operator  located  at  the 
last  siding  at  end  of  track,  where  the  boarding- 
cars  of  the  track-laying  force  are  left  at  night, 
so  that  the  foreman  of  the  track-layers  and  the 
surfacing  gang  can  be  kept  in  communication 
with  the  superintendent  of  construction  or  chief 
engineer. 

Fencing  the  right  of  way,  depot  grounds  and 
yards  is  generally  the  last  thing  done. 

(NOTE  :  A  list  of  authors  on  Construction  is  given  in  Ap- 
pendix K.) 


CHAPTER  VI. 

STANDARDS    OF    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MATERIAL. 

The  standard  sizes  and  quality  of  the  various 
materials  and  devices  which  are  used  on  a  new 
line  of  railroad  are  largely  determined  before  the 
reconnoissance  is  made,  and  are  in  every  case 
definitely  decided  upon  before  the  located  line  is 
finally  adopted. 

STRUCTURES. 

The  financial  success  of  the  enterprise  will 
largely  depend  on  the  selection  of  the  proper 
standards  for  the  different  structures  along  the 
line.  Thus  if  it  is  decided  to  erect  substantial 
structures  for  stations,  shops,  storehouses,  etc., 
on  a  new  line,  the  greatest  care  must  be  exer- 
cised, or  it  may  be  found  that  a  substantial  and 
costly  structure  has  been  placed  at  a  point  where 
very  little  business  is  being  done. 

Inasmuch  as  trading  and  manufacturing  cen- 
ters spring  into  existence  at  unexpected  points, 
it  is  advisable  to  keep  the  first  cost  of  the  road 
down  to  the  minimum,  consistent  with  economy 
of  operating.  After  the  country  has  been  devel- 
oped and  the  character  of  the  business  deter- 
mined, then  more  substantial  and  permanent 
structures  can  with  advantage  be  adopted. 

(147) 


148       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

GAUGE. 

The  gauge  or  distance  between  the  rails,  is  the 
first  point  to  be  decided;  a  large  majority  of  the 
mileage  in  America  is  four  feet  eight  and  one- 
half  inch  gauge,  and  it  is  perhaps  safe  to  state 
that  this  is  the  gauge  of  the  majority  of  the  rail- 
way mileage  of  the  world.  Discussion  as  to  the 
best  gauge  has  been  carried  on  ever  since  rail- 
way building  commenced,  and  was  quite  spirited 
from  1870  to  1883,  when  there  was  a  strong  sen- 
timent in  favor  of  a  narrower  gauge  than  four 
feet  eight  and  one-half  inches,  which  was  then 
and  is  now  called  the  Standard  Gauge.  In  1880 
there  were  4,000  miles  of  railway  having  a  gauge 
of  three  feet,  and  such  lines  were  then  and  are 
now  called  narrow  gauge.* 

The  advocates  of  the  narrow  gauge  claimed  for 
it  the  following  advantages; 

First — Ability  to  haul  heavier  loads. 

Second — Ability  to  pass  around  sharper  curves. 

Third — That  the  road  could  be  constructed  for 
less  money,  and 

Fourth — That  the  paying  load  hauled  was  a 
larger  percentage  of  the  dead  load  hauled  than 
on  roads  having  standard  gauge. 

As  the  standard  and  narrow  gauge  roads  ex- 
isted and  were  operated  in  1880,  these  claims 
were  correct,  but  only  the  second  and  third  are 
due  to  the  gauge. 

The  load  hauled  by  a  locomotive  depends  on 
the  relation  existing  between  the  horse-power 

*Appendix  E  gives  a  list  of  the  gauges  of  railroads  that  are  or 
have  been  in  use  in  different  countries. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  149 

and  the  weight  on  the  drivers,  as  the  load  to  be 
hauled  increases,  the  weight  on  the  drivers  and 
the  horse-power  of  the  locomotive  must  be  cor- 
respondingly increased;  it  is  not  economy  to 
have  the  weight  of  the  drivers  designed  for  a 
greater  load  than  the  horse-power  of  the  engine 
will  pull;  this  would  be  a  case  of  a  dead  load 
having  no  earning  capacity.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  horse-power  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
weight  on  the  drivers,  the  result  is  that  the  driv- 
ers spin  round  on  the  track  (slip)  when  a  load 
suitable  to  the  horse-power  is  attached  to  the  lo- 
comotive. The"  discussion  of  the  gauges  referred 
to  taught  the  managers  of  the  broad  gauge  roads 
that  their  locomotives  could  be  designed  to  se- 
cure greater  efficiency  or  economy.  The  second 
claim  of  the  narrow  gauge  advocates  possessed 
but  small  value,  except  in  extremely  rough  and 
difficult  country,  and  then  only  at  exceptional 
points.  The  third  claim,  which  they  considered 
one  of  their  strong  points,  is  not  so  strong  as  it 
appears;  where  a  new  line  is  to  be  built  to  de- 
velop a  country,  and  the  business  will  be  light 
for  some  years,  the  bridging,  rails,  locomotives 
and  cars  can  be  built  of  a  light,  cheap  standard 
and  the  rolling  stock  kept  on  the  line;  bulk  ma- 
terial, such  as  live  stock,  grain,  wool,  etc.,  can 
be  handled  in  foreign  cars  of  connecting  lines, 
where  the  shipment  is  to  a  point  off  the  line; 
this  method  saves  the  expense  of  transferring 
bulk  shipments  at  terminals,  and  the  bridging, 
track  and  rolling  stock  would  cost  about  the 
same  as  for  a  narrow  gauge.  The  saving  in  the 


150       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

grading  for  a  surface  road  averaging  six  feet  cut 
and  fill,  placing  fifty  cents  per  yard  for  the  av- 
erage price  paid  per  cubic  yard  of  material 
moved,  would  be  $1,200.00  per  mile.  A  light 
broad  gauged  road  equipped  as  above  described 
has,  in  addition  to  the  advantage  of  handling 
bulk  freight,  the  further  advantage  that  the 
earnings  can  be  used  to  equip  it  for  heavy  traffic 
as  the  business  of  the  country  is  developed,  and 
all  improvements  can  be  made  to  conform  to 
the  equipment  used  on  the  older  roads. 

At  the  time  of  the  discussion  in  favor  of  the 
narrow  gauge  the  capacity  of  the  narrow  gauge 
freight  cars  was  a  much  higher  percentage  of  the 
dead  load  than  that  of  the  broad  gauge  freight 
cars.  This  educated  the  managers  of  the  broad 
gauge  roads,  and  to-day  there  are  freight  cars  of 
80,000  pounds  capacity  and  36,000  pounds  weight 
or  dead  load,  while  in  1880  the  capacity  was 
about  the  same  as  the  dead  load. 

As  a  rule,  all  new  lines  built  in  a  country 
where  railroads  already  exist  should  be  of  the 
same  gauge  as  existing  ones.  This  will  enable 
freight  to  be  handled  more  cheaply  than  where 
there  has  to  be  a  transfer  from  one  car  to  an- 
other at  terminals.  The  fact  that  there  was  a 
narrow  gauge  mileage  of  4,000  miles  in  1880 
and  a  mileage  of  3,000  miles  in  1899  points  con- 
clusively to  the  fact  that  the  standard  gauge  is 
more  economical  to  operate. 

CUTS    AND    FILLS. 

The  next  point  to  be  decided  is  the  width  at 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  151 

grade  of  the  cuts  and  fills.  On  a  standard  gauge 
road,  the  following  table  gives  the  widths  used 
on  some  of  the  lines  in  North  America: 

SINGLE  TRACK. 

Earth  Rock 

Name  of  Road.  Embankment.    Excavation.   Excavation. 

New  York  Cent.  &  Hudson 

River 16ft.  19  ft.          17ft. 

New  York,  New  Haven  & 

Hartford 18ft.  18  ft.          18ft. 

Lake    Shore    &    Michigan 

Southern 16  ft.  23f  ft. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 17ft.  19  ft.          18ft. 

Southern  Pacific 16ft.  19  ft. 

Northern  Pacific 14ft.  20  ft.          16ft. 

Chicago  &  Nor. -West 20  f t .  24  f t .          22  ft. 

Tratman  recommends 16  ft.  20  ft.          18  ft. 

Often  used  on   new   lines 

with  earth  ballast 14  ft.  18  ft.          16  ft. 

The  slopes  adopted  are  generally  as  follows: 

For  earth  cuts 1  horizontal  to  1  vertical. 

For  rock  cuts \         "  to  1 

For  rock  cuts  over  30  feet  cutting. £          "  to  1        " 

Earth  embankments 1J        "  to  1        " 

Rock  embankments \\        "  to  1        " 

The  slopes  of  earth  cuts  near  depots  in  towns  and 
suburban  districts  of  large  cities  are  often  flat- 
tened to  14  to  1  and  2  to  1  and  rounded  off  at 
the  top  and  sodded. 

Narrow  Gauge  Sections.  The  widths  of  cuts 
and  fills  for  narrow  gauge  railroads  can  be  made 
less  than  for  a  Standard  gauge.  A  deduction  of 
two  feet  can  be  made  where  the  gauge  is  three 
feet. 

Controlling  Points.  The  points  which  control 
the  width  of  rock  cuts  are  the  room  required  to 


152       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

clear  the  lower  steps  on  the  platforms  of  passenger 
cars.  The  long  cars  and  their  truss  rods  are  also 
a  factor  which  has  to  be  taken  into  account  as 
clearance  must  be  provided  for  them. 

The  character  of  the  material  through  which 
an  earth  cut  is  made,  and  the  amount  of  surface 
drainage  into  the  cut,  are  the  factors  in  deter- 
mining the  slope  of  an  excavation  and  the  width 
at  grade.  There  are  often  cases  where  the  sur- 
face drainage  is  diverted  by  ditches  sometimes 
called  berme  ditches  ten  or  fifteen  feet  back  from 
the  edge  of  the  slope  to  the  end  of  the  cut  to 
prevent  the  water  running  down  the  face  of  the 
excavation,  and  where  the  character  of  the 
material  will  stand  a  slope  of  i  or  f  to  1.  In 
such  a  case  a  largo  saving  is  made,  but  the  en- 
gineer who  attempts  this  must  have  had  experi- 
ence in  handling  material.  There  are  some 
gravels  and  clays  which  will  stand  at  a  steeper 
slope  than  1  to  1.  However,  with  the  clays, 
their  lines  of  cleavage  or  seams  may  cause  fail- 
ures under  the  most  promising  circumstances. 

Mr.  Tratman  in  "  Railway  Track  and  Track 
Work  "  in  treating  on  the  widths  at  grade  of 
cuts  and  fills  says: 

"The  surface  at  subgrade  is  almost  invariably 
crowned  at  the  middle  to  drain  off  water  to  the 
sides,  the  only  exception  of  which  the  writer  is 
aware  being  on  the  Eastern  Railway  of  France, 
where  the  surface  is  made  slightly  concave,  and 
tile  drains  are  led  from  the  bottom  of  the  hollow 
to  the  face  of  the  bank.  The  roadbed  may  be 
formed  in  different  ways  to  throw  off  the  water 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  153 

reaching  it  through  the  ballast:  (1),  it  may  have 
one  or  more  planes  from  each  side  to  the  center; 
(2),  it  may  have  a  curved  surface  with  a  rise  of  3 
to  6  inches  for  single  track  and  6  to  8  inches  for 
double  track;  or  (3)  it  may  have  a  flat  center  por- 
tion with  planes  each  side  of  the  ditch.  In 
regions  of  ordinary  rainfall  the  best  plan  is  to 
give  a  slope,  as  it  will  throw  off  water  better 
than  a  flat  curve.  The  more  solid  and  compact 
the  surface  of  the  roadbed  is  made  before  the  bal- 
last is  applied,  the  better  will  be  the  drainage, 
and  the  latest  specifications  prepared  by  Mr. 
Katte,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  New  York  Central 
Eailway  require  the  subgrade  to  be  as  nearly 
homogeneous  in  composition  and  consistency  as 
practicable  for  a  depth  of  18  to  24  inches,  solidi- 
fied to  uniform  resistance  by  thorough  ramming 
or  rolling,  and  truly  graded  in  regular  drainage 
planes,  having  a  rise  of  6  inches  for  a  double 
track  roadbed  27  feet  wide  on  a  bank.  In  some 
cases  the  roadbed  is  inclined  on  curves  to  give 
the  proper  superelevation  to  the  track,  but  this 
practice  is  not  general. 

"In  some  cases  the  slope  of  the  roadbed  is  con- 
tinued to  meet  the  toe  of  the  slope  in  cuts,  but 
with  earth  or  other  poor  ballast  and  in  country 
with  ordinary  rainfall,  it  is  better  to  have  a  ditch 
reaching  well  below  subgrade,  so  as  to  effectually 
drain  the  roadbed.  The  drainage  of  the  track  is 
effected  by  the  ballast,  the  crowning  of  the  sub- 
grade  and  by  side  ditches  in  cuts,  which  latter 
carry  away  the  water  from  the  ballast  and  road- 
bed, and  this  drainage  is  one  of  the  most  import- 


154        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ant  items  in  maintaining  a  good  track,  its  im- 
portance increasing  as  the  quality  or  quantity  of 
the  ballast  decreases,  and  increasing  also  in  rela- 
tion to  the  extent  of  rainfall.  Climatic  condi- 
tions are,  of  course,  to  be  considered  in  designing 
the  form  of  cross-section  of  roadbed,  heavy  ditch- 
ing not  being  required  in  dry  regions  with  light 
soil.  On  roads  through  country  with  a  moder- 
ate rainfall,  the  ditches  should,  nevertheless,  be  of 
ample  capacity  to  carry  off  the  storm  water  in 
occasional  heavy  rains.  The  ditches  should  be 
parallel  with  the  track,  not  made  to  wind  around 
stumps  or  holders,  and  must  be  graded  so  as  to 
pass  all  water  freely  and  to  thoroughly  drain  the 
roadbed  and  keep  both  ballast  and  roadbed  firm 
and  dry.  The  width  should  increase  towards  the 
ends,  and  if  the  standard  width  does  not  give 
sufficient  capacity,  the  ditch  should  be  widened 
on  the  outer  side. 

"The  distance  from  the  rail  to  the  ditch  varies 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  bot- 
tom should  be  about  16  to  24  inches  below  the 
crown  of  sub-grade.  An  average  arrangement 
in  ordinary  material  is  a  distance  of  7  feet  from 
the  rail  to  the  edge  of  a  ditch  24  inches  wide  on 
top,  18  inches  wide  on  the  bottom,  with  the 
bottom  8  inches  below  center  of  roadbed  on 
single  track,  or  12  inches  on  double  track.  In 
wet  cuts  the  ditches  may  be  lined  with  cement, 
or  in  narrow  cuts  (especially  where  the  earth 
slides  or  bulges)  they  may  be  lined  with  plank 
or  old  ties  with  struts  across  the  top.  Sub-drains 
of  tile,  brush,  or  wooden  boxes  may  be  laid  as 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


155 


required.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  carry  water 
from  the  ditch  on  one  side  to  the  ditch  on  the 
other  side  of  the  track,  or  from  a  center  ditch  to 
the  side  ditches  (as  on  double  track)  box  drains 
of  wood  are  laid  in  the  ballast.  These  box 
drains  are  usually  12x12  inches  inside,  12  to  16 
feet  long,  made  of  2-inch  plank  with  the  ends 
sloped  to  conform  to  the  slope  of  the  ballast,  and 
having  four  or  six  flat  strips  2x6x16  inches  across 
the  top.  The  ditches  may  be  carried  under  road 
crossings  by  cast-iron  pipe,  clay,  sewer  or  culvert 
pipe,  or  wooden  box  drains.  The  first  is  prefer- 
able, as  wood  soon  rots  and  lets  dirt  fall  in  to 
clog  the  drain,  and  clay  pipe  is  liable  to  be 
broken,  as  there  is  generally  very  little  cover 
over  it.  The  size  of  the  pipe  varies  according  to 
the  amount  of  water  to  be  carried,  but  is  gener- 
ally 6  to  10  inches,  while  the  box  drain  is  usually 
about  8x10  inches,  having  plank  sides  and  bottom 
and  a  top  of  cross  strips  nailed  close  together." 

Sections  of  the  roadbed  and  ballast  used  on 
some  railroads  are  shown  in  Figs.  81  to  89. 


FIG.  81. 

EARTH  BALLAST.— GAL VESTON,  HOUSTON  &  HENDERSON  RAILWAY. 


156       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FlG.  82. 

GRAVEL  BALLAST.— GAL  VESTON,  HOUSTON  &  HENDERSON  RAILWAY 


FIG.  83. 

EARTH  BALLAST.— ILLINOIS  CENTRAL  RAILROAD. 


FIG.  84. 

CRUSHED  STONE,  2  INCHES  DIAMETER    ON   QUARRY  SPAULS  4   TO  6  INCHES 
DIAMETER.— N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R  R.  R. 


OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


157 


FIG.  85. 

BALLAST,  CRUSHED  STONE  2 K  INCHES  DIAMETER.-PENNA.  R.  R. 


FIG.  86. 


ROCK  CUT  STONE  BALLAST,  2£  INCHES  DIAMETER. -C.  &  P.  E  BRANCH, 

PENNA.  R.  R. 


158        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


CO       I 

GO       EH 

.  3 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  159 


•8-0' 


FIG.  89. 

BURNT  CLAY  BALLAST.— C.  B.  &  Q.  R.  R. 

The  sections  used  in  some  of  the  American  and 
foreign  tunnels  are  shown  in  Figs.  90  to  94. 


FIG.  90. 

HOOSAC  TUNNEL.    FINISHED  MASONRY  IN  SOFT  GROUND. 


160       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


ffls/f'/"''//////w  ^ 


FIG.  91. 

SECTION  OF  TUNNEL  AT  PORT  PERRY.-P.  V.  &.  C.  RY. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


161 


FIG.  92. 


SECTION  OF  TUNNEL  OX  THE  INSBRUCK-BOZEN  LINE  OF  AUSTRIAN 
SOUTHERN  RY  CO. 


(I    Vol,  13 


162      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  93. 


SECTION  OF  TUNNEL,  USED  BY  GOVERNMENT  RAILWAY  OF 
EAST  INDIA. 


STAND+UtDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 
I 


163 


FIG.  94. 

SECTION  OF  IRON  TUNNEL,  UNDER  ST.  CLAIR  RIVER  USED  BY 
GRAND  TRUNK  RY. 

BALLAST. 

Newly  constructed  roads  and  the  branches  of 
some  of  the  larger  systems  are  largely  ballasted 
with  earth,  or  rather,  are  not  ballasted  at  all, 


164        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

either  for  the  reason  that  financial  conditions 
prevent  or  the  traffic  is  so  light  as  not  to  require 
it.  In  this  case  the  methods  adopted  to  support 
the  track  are  fairly  illustrated  by  the  sections  of 
the  roadbed  of  the  Galveston,  Houston  &  Hen- 
derson Railway  and  the  Illinois  Central  Railway 
where  the  earth  is  filled  over  the  center  of  the 
tie  level  with  the  top  of  the  rail,  sloping  out  to 
the  bottom  of  the  tie  at  its  end;  this  gives  drain- 
age by  conveying  the  water  off  the  bank  rapidly, 
and  permits  the  moisture  under  the  tie  to  drain 
out  at  the  end.  The  objections  to  this  plan  are 
that  the  earth  over  the  center  of  the  tie  tends  to 
rot  it  and  the  lack  of  support  at  the  end  makes 
it  difficult  to  hold  the  track  to  line.  However, 
in  the  country  where  these  sections  are  used,  the 
rainfall  at  some  seasons  of  the  year  is  heavy  and 
continuous  and  the  sections  adopted  are  the  best 
for  such  climatic  conditions.  Where  the  rainfall 
is  not  so  great  and  where  the  ground  is  more  or 
less  frozen  during  the  winter,  the  earth  (and 
ballast  also  when  used)  is  not  placed  on  top  of 
the  tie. 

The  various  kinds  of  ballast  used  can  be  classed 
as  follows:  Stone,  slag,  gravel,  sand,  cinders  and 
burnt  clay.  The  requirements  of  a  good  ballast 
are  that  it  shall  be  durable;  of  a  character  that 
will  allow  water  to  drain  off  freely;  that  it  will 
be  free  from  dust  and  of  such  a  quality  and  form 
that  it  will  remain  in  position  and  hold  the  tie. 

The  material  which  most  nearly  fills  all  the 
above  requirements  is  trap  rock  and  the  harder 
granites.  However,  circumstances  compel  the 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  165 

adoption  of  the  best  means  at  hand,  and  any  hard 
stone  which  will  break  into  cubical  form  is  used. 
Shales  which  break  into  flat  sheets  crush  into 
powder,  and  do  not  give  good  drainage,  they 
should,  therefore,  not  be  used.  The  practice  of 
some  roads  is  to  lay  a  bed  of  large  stone  6  to  9 
inches  thick  on  the  subgrade,  and  on  this  place  a 
layer  of  6  to  10  inches  of  stone  broken  to  a 
uniform  size  of  li  to  2  inches;  however,  care 
must  be  taken  to  first  fill  the  openings  in  the  top 
of  the  large  stone  with  spauls  before  placing  the 
broken  stone  ballast.  The  ties  are  placed  on  top  of 
the  broken  stone  and  broken  stone  filled  in  around 
them  up  to  and  level  with  the  tops  of  the  ties. 
Another  method  is  to  place  the  crushed  stone  di- 
rectly on  the  subgrade;  the  Pennsylvania  Kail- 
way  do  this,  using  10  inches  of  stone  under  the 
tie.  Some  roads  require  the  ballast  to  be  broken 
to  such  a  size  that  the  largest  stone  will  pass 
through  a  2i-inch  ring  and  others  through  a  3- 
inch  ring.  The  smallest  size  used  must  not  be 
less  than  one  inch  cube.  In  these  cases  the  stone 
is  broken  by  a  crusher  and  run  through  a  screen 
which  separates  the  different  sizes.  The  larger 
size  should  be  laid  on  the  subgrade  and  the 
smaller  size  form  the  top  of  the  ballast.  On  this 
subject  Mr.  Tratman  states: 

"  In  some  cases  a  layer  of  gravel  is  laid  upon  a 
bottom  layer  of  broken  stone,  but  this  is  not  gen- 
eral, and  it  is  not  to  be  recommended  though 
claimed  to  combine  the  good  drainage  of  stone 
with  economy  in  material,  as  gravel  is  in  general 
cheaper  and  more  easily  procured.  The  2i-inch 


166      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

stone  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  top  dressing 
of  1-inch  stone,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  in 
some  places  lays  small  broken  stone  over  the  reg- 
ular ballast  and  covering  the  ties,  the  purpose  be- 
ing to  deaden  the  sound  in  the  cars.  The  new 
steel  ties  for  the  New  York  Central  Railway  will 
be  entirely  covered  with  ballast  except  over  the 
rail  fastenings.  This  practice  is  not  good  with 
wooden  ties  as  a  rule,  as  it  leads  to  rotting  by 
keeping  the  ties  damp,  and  prevents  inspection, 
but  in  very  hot,  dry  regions,  it  may  be  permissible 
in  order  to  protect  the  ties  from  the  sun.  Stone 
ballast  should  be  handled  with  forks  and  not 
with  shovels  so  as  to  avoid  putting  dirt  into  the 
track,  as  the  dirt  hinders  the  drainage  and  affords 
a  chance  for  weeds  to  grow.  From  a  main- 
tenance point  of  view  it  may  be  noted  that 
stone  ballast  on  a  poor  road  involves  greater  ex- 
pense for  renewal  and  maintenance  (perhaps  at 
a  time  when  little  money  is  available)  than  when 
gravel  is  used. 

"  Slag. — Furnace  slag  or  cinder  is  extensively 
used  on  roads  in  the  vicinity  of  blast  furnaces 
and  iron  works.  It  is  about  as  durable  as  broken 
stone  and  in  other  ways  almost  as  good,  though 
it  is  sometimes  said  that  ties  decay  in  it  more 
rapidly  than  in  stone  ballast.  If  properly  drained, 
however,  the  difference  is  but  small.  It  is  con- 
sidered that  it  should  be  as  free  from  lime  as 
possible,  but  a  reported  corrosion  of  rails  on  slag 
ballast  does  not  seem  to  be  substantiated.  Mr. 
Mordecai,  Assistant  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Erie 
Railway,  states  that  furnace  companies  are  gen- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  167 

erally  glad  to  supply  the  material  free  on  cars  at 
the  furnaces,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it.  It  does 
not  require  a  great  deal  of  labor  to  break  it  up 
and  costs  about  as  much  to  put  under  the  track 
as  stone,  possibly  a  little  less.  It  should  be  broken 
to  a  2-inch  or  2^-inch  ring,  and  like  stone,  it 
should  be  handled  by  forks,  so  as  to  be  free  from 
dust  and  uirt.  There  should  be  at  least  10  inches 
of  slag  under  the  ties.  The  tamping  is  done  in 
the  same  way  as  with  stone,  though  Mr.  Morde- 
cai  thinks  that  slag  requires  a  little  more  tamp- 
ing in  the  middle  of  the  Itie,  so  a"s  to  keep  the 
track  in  good  condition  for  easy  riding.  It  gives 
excellent  results,  keeps  the  track  in  good  line  and 
surface,  and  does  not  heave  as  much  as  gravel. 
On  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Railway  it  has  been 
used  for  some  years,  the  average  depth  under  the 
ties  being  12  inches,  and  Mr.  Frazier,  Chief  En- 
gineer, states  that  it  is  very  satisfactory  and 
economical.  The  bulk  of  this  slag  is  as  small  as 
ordinary  gravel,  and  is  loaded  with  a  steam 
shovel.  The  engineer  has  been  able  to  get  it  in 
this  condition  by  arranging  with  the  furnaces  to 
pour  the  hot  slag  from  the  pots  down  an  incline 
30  to  40  feet,  when  the  slag  spreads  out  and  cools 
very  rapidly.  This  gives  it  the  appearance  of 
broken  china,  instead  of  the  porous  sponge-like 
appearance  of  the  large  lumps  of  slag  handled  in 
the  ordinary  way.  On  the  Lehigh  Valley  Rail- 
way a  12-inch  bed  of  slag  is  sometimes  put  under 
the  ties,  and  then  covered  with  anthracite  ashes 
filled  in  between  the  ties.  The  cross-section  is 
usually  formed  similar  to  that  for  broken  stone, 


168       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

and  an  important  feature  of  slag  ballast  is  that 
owing  to  the  sharpness  of  its  edges  it  checks 
people  from  walking  on  the  track.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  in  England,  where  it  is  run  from  a 
furnace  onto  a  traveling  belt  and  suddenly  cooled 
by  water,  which  hardens  it  and  breaks  it  up  at 
the  same  time.  In  view  of  its  low  cost  and  its 
excellence  as  ballast,  it  might  well  be  adopted 
by  many  roads  which  now  use  an  inferior  gravel 
on  their  main  tracks.  If  the  traffic  is  heavy,  the 
improved  condition  of  track  and  the  reduced  cost 
of  maintenance  would  probably  warrant  the  ex- 
pense for  transportation  of  slag  ballast  from  the 
furnaces. 

"Burnt  Clay — This  has  been  used  in  England 
and  other  foreign  countries  for  over  twenty 
years,  and  its  use  is  extending  in  this  country — 
mainly  in  the  West.  The  most  suitable  material 
is  brick  clay  (or  almost  any  clay  that  has  not 
too  much  sand)  and  gumbo,  or  clayey  earth,  and 
experiments  have  been  made  with  the  '  black 
wax '  earth  of  Texas.  The  site  for  burning  is 
cleared  of  top  soil,  and  a  row  of  old  ties,  cord- 
wood,  etc.,  about  three  feet  high,  is  laid  the 
length  of  the  kiln  500  to  4,000  feet.  This  is 
covered  with  a  few  inches  of  slack  coal,  or  slack 
and  lump  mixed,  upon  which  is  thrown  a  layer 
of  clay  9  to  12  inches  thick.  The  wood  is  then 
lighted  at  intervals,  the  openings  being  closed 
when  the  fire  is  started.  As  the  burning  pro- 
ceeds, another  layer  of  coal  is  placed,  and  an- 
other layer  of  6  to  9  inches  of  clay,  and  these 
layers  are  repeated  from  time  to  time  until  the 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  169 

finished  heap  is  about  20  feet  wide  and  10  feet 
high.  One  ton  of  slack  coal  will  burn  4  to  5 
cubic  yards  of  clay,  and  the  cost  varies  from  35 
to  85  cents  per  cubic  yard  loaded  on  the  cars. 
About  1,000  cubic  yards  per  day  can  be  burned 
in  a  kiln  4,000  feet  long,  about  50  men  being 
employed.  The  work  is  usually  done  by  con- 
tract, the  company  furnishing  the  land,  side- 
track and  coal.  Partial  estimates  are  given  on 
kiln  measurements,  and  the  final  estimate  is 
made  from  car  measurements  when  loaded  out, 
so  that  worthless  material  is  not  paid  for.  The 
ballast  is  light  (40  to  50  pounds  per  cubic  foot), 
easily  handled,  gives  good  drainage,  is  free  from 
weeds,  is  not  dusty,  and  is  in  general  satisfactory, 
requiring  renewal  in  six  to  eight  years.  It  is 
said  to  crush  rather  easily  under  the  ties  and  to 
necessitate  shovel  tamping,  but  the  writer  does 
not  consider  that  shovel  tamping  is  necessary 
with  any  ballast  under  ordinary  conditions.  The 
cross-section  is  formed  similar  to  that  for  stone 
ballast,  and  there  should  be  at  least  12  inches 
under  the  ties,  as  this  ballast  must  be  used  liber- 
ally to  give  good  results.  Further  particulars  of 
the  manufacture  and  use  of  this  material  are 
given  in  the  writer's  paper  on  *  Improvements  in 
Kail  way  Track'  (Transactions,  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers,  March,  1890),  ^nd  in  '  Engi- 
neering News/  New  York,  November  16,  1893. 
The  cost  per  cubic  yard  of  ballast  in  the  track  is 
about  $1.05,  distributed  as  follows,  the  price  for 
the  first  item  being  variable: 


170       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Contract  price  for  burning 38  cents. 

Average  cost  of  coal 21 

Loading  on  cars 8 

Distributing 9 

Putting  under  track 22 

Interest  and  depreciation 4 

Land 1 

Miscellaneous  expenses 2 

Total  cost  per  cubic  yard $1 . 05 

"The  burnt  clay  ballast  used  on  the  St.  Louis, 
Keokuk  &  Northwestern  Railway  is  a  black, 
clayey  soil  or  gumbo,  and  the  railway  company 
contracted  for  it  burned  in  the  pit,  the  company 
laying  the  necessary  tracks,  furnishing  the  old 
ties  and  slack  coal  for  burning,  and  loading  and 
hauling  the  burned  ballast.  The  cost  on  cars  at 
the  pit  was  estimated  at  65  to  70  cents  per  cubic 
yard,  which  is  higher  than  usually  estimated,  but 
a  number  of  small  items  were  included  which  are 
sometimes  overlooked.  The  burnt  '  black  wax  ' 
soil  ballast  on  the  Texas  Midland  Railway  is  said 
to  cost  $1.00  per  cubic  yard  in  the  track, 
and  to  have  the  advantage  of  being  absorbent, 
so  that  in  ordinary  rainfalls  most  of  the  water  is 
taken  up  by  the  ballast  (which  does  not  soften) 
and  does  not  go  through  to  the  roadbed. 

"Gravel. — This  material  is  more  used  than  any 
other  in  this  country  and  is  of  very  varying  quality. 
It  may  be  sandy  and  dusty  or  loamy  (when  weeds 
will  grow,  drainage  will  be  affected  and  the  track 
will  heave)  or  else  full  of  large  stones,  which 
make  an  irregular  and  rough  riding  track.  The 
best  gravel  should  be  clean  and  coarse,  and  as  far 
as  possible  of  uniform  size  and  quality.  It  does 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  171 

not  give  as  good  drainage  as  stone,  but  a  fairly 
coarse  and  clean  gravel  will  be  generally  satis- 
factory. It  is  good  economy  to  use  plenty  of 
gravel,  giving  at  least  8  inches  (or  better  10  in- 
ches) under  the  ties,  as  it  will  enable  a  fairly 
good  track  to  be  maintained  nearly  all  the  year 
through  without  excessive  work.  It  can  be 
tamped  by  picks  or  bars,  the  latter  being  gener- 
ally preferred,  and  is  easily  taken  care  of.  In 
Europe  the  gravel  is  sometimes  thoroughly 
washed  by  machinery  to  free  it  entirely  from 
earth  and  sand. 

"  There  are  varying  opinions  as  to  the  cross- 
section  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  mate- 
rial and  the  climatic  conditions.  Thus  with 
good,  clean,  coarse  gravel,  or  in  warm,  dry  re- 
gions, it  is  better  to  make  the  section  as  with 
broken  stone,  bringing  the  ballast  level  with  the 
tops  of  the  ties  and  shouldering  it  out  6  to  12 
inches  from  their  ends.  With  inferior  fine  or 
loamy  gravel  (and  this  is  the  quality  most  gener- 
ally met  with)  or  where  water  and  frost  have  to 
be  considered,  it  is  better  to  slope  the  ballast 
from  the  middle  of  the  tie  to  the  ends,  to  allow 
the  water  to  drain  off  and  not  be  held  back  by 
the  rails,  the  ballast  being  one  inch  clear  below 
the  rail  base.  The  slope  may  be  made  continuous 
with  that  of  the  roadbed  to  the  ditch,  and  may 
be  to  the  bottom  of  the  end  of  the  tie  or  a  little 
higher,  so  as  to  leave  part  of  the  end  embedded, 
out  this  latter  arrangement  is  likely  to  retain 
water  along  the  ends  of  the  ties.  In  some  cases 
the  ballast  is  flat  on  top  for  about  3  f eet;  and  then 


172      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

slopes  down  under  the  rails  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ties.  Fine  gravel  is  sometimes  filled  in  2  or  3 
inches  above  the  ties  at  the  middle,  but  in  wet 
country  this  keeps  the  ties  damp  and  leads  to 
rotting,  though  in  dry  country  it  may  protect 
them  from  the  sun  and  from  hot  engine  cinders. 
The  Houston  &  Texas  Central  Railway  fills  in  the 
gravel  between  the  rails  to  the  level  of  the  under 
side  of  the  rail  heads.  On  double  track  the  bal- 
last is  usually  sloped  towards  the  middle  of  the 
roadbed  to  form  a  central  drain  which  should  be 
at  least  6  inches  below  the  ties,  and  is  sometimes 
carried  down  to  the  surface  of  the  roadbed.  Cross 
box  drains  in  the  ballast  carry  the  water  to  the 
side  ditches.  At  stations  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railway  the  ties  rest  on  8  inches  of  ballast,  and 
cinders  are  filled  in  nearly  to  the  underside  of 
the  rail  heads  between  the  rails  and  between  the 
main  and  side  tracks. 

"  Cinders. — Engine  cinders  make  a  cheap  and 
serviceable  ballast  which  will  last  for  some  time 
under  light  traffic.  Being  porous  it  drains  well 
and  does  not  hold  moisture.  It  is  easily  handled  by 
the  shovel,  does  not  heave  much  with  the  action 
of  the  frost,  and  prevents  weeds  from  growing. 
The  principal  objection  is  that  it  makes  a  very 
dusty  track  until  after  some  length  of  service, 
when  the  rain  and  traffic  compact  the  material 
very  thoroughly.  It  is  very  generally  used  for 
sidetracks  and  yards.  With  a  wet  roadbed,  and 
with  earth  or  mud  ballast  in  the  spring,  or  in  wet 
weather  when  the  earth  is  too  soft  to  fulfill  its 
purpose;  a  good  layer  of  cinders  will  much  facil- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  173 

itate  maintenance,  and  in  very  bad  cases  the  mud 
holes  or  wet  spots  may  be  dug  out  and  filled  with 
cinders.  The  cinders  should  not  be  laid  on  earth 
ballast,  however,  when  the  frost  is  coming  out  of 
the  ground  or  this  action  will  be  checked,  and  it 
will  be  late  in  the  season  before  it  is  thoroughly 
out.  In  cross-section  the  ballast  is  sometimes 
formed  the  same  as  for  broken  stone,  and  on  side 
tracks  it  may  either  be  sloped  down  to  form  a 
drain  between  that  and  the  main  track  as  on  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Kail  way,  or  be  filled  in  level, 
as  on  the  Erie  Railway.  The  cinders  are  some- 
times applied  upon  a  bed  of  stone  or  slag  ballast 
upon  which  the  ties  rest. 

"  Sand. — This  makes  a  fairly  good  ballast  under 
light  traffic,  but  unless  it  is  very  coarse  it  requires 
constant  attention  and  renewal,  involving  con- 
siderable maintenance  work  as  it  flows  from 
under  the  ties  with  the  pumping  motion  of  the 
ties,  and  is  gradually  drifted  away  by  the  wind 
and  washed  away  by  the  rain.  It  is  generally 
shaped  the  same  as  gravel,  but  if  well  shouldered 
out  from  the  ends  of  the  ties  and  level  with  them 
as  on  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  &  Sault  Ste  Marie 
Railway  (shaped  the  same  as  broken  stone  bal- 
last) it  will  hold  the  track  better,  and  there  will 
be  much  less  flowing  from  the  ties.  Owing  to  its 
instability  it  does  not  keep  track  well  in  align- 
ment. It  is  convenient  to  handle  and  drains 
fairly  well,  but  it  heaves  in  winter,  makes  a  dusty 
track,  and  is  very  hard  on  the  journals  and  ma- 
chinery. In  India  sand  ballast  is  often  covered 
with  a  layer  of  broken  stone  or  broken  brick  to 


174      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

prevent  strong  winds  from  blowing  it  away. 
Special  grasses  or  bushes  may  also  be  used  as 
wind  breaks  in  sandy  districts." 

TIES. 

The  quality  of  the  cross-tie  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  stability  and  permanence  of  the 
roadbed  and  the  cost  of  maintenance.  Ties  can 
be  divided  into  three  general  classes:  (a)  wood 
untreated;  (&)  wood  treated  with  a  preservative 
process,  and  (c)  metal. 

The  kinds  of  wood  used  for  ties  vary,  of  course, 
with  every  country.  The  different  woods  used 
in  the  United  States  for  ties  approximate  the  fol- 
lowing proportions:  oak,  sixty-two  per  cent.; 
chestnut,  five  per  cent.;  pine,  seventeen  per 
cent.;  cedar  (red,  white  and  California),  seven 
per  cent.;  hemlock  and  tamarack,  three  per 
cent. ;  cypress,  two  per  cent. ;  redwood,  three  per 
cent. ;  other  kinds,  one  per  cent. 

The  requirements  of  a  good  tie  are:  (a)  abil- 
ity to  hold  a  spike  against  the  strain  exerted  on 
the  spike  by  the  rail;  (&)  it  must  not  be  brittle 
and  split  when  the  spike  is  driven;  (c)  the  wood 
should  not  yield  or  be  compressed  by  the  rail; 
(c?)  it  should  withstand  the  pressure  of  the  bal- 
last (when  stone)  without  being  crushed;  (e)  its 
size  should  give  sufficient  bearing  surface  to  sup- 
port the  load  imposed  without  the  rail  sinking 
into  the  tie,  or  the  tie  being  pressed  into  the  bal- 
last, or  become  broken;  (/)  finally,  it  should  be 
durable. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  175 

White  oak  makes  the  best  tie,  both  for  wear 
and  durability;  it  generally  fails  from  decay 
rather  than  wear;  the  life  of  a  white  oak  tie  is 
about  eight  years  under  heavy  traffic,  and  some- 
times twelve  years  under  light  traffic.  Chestnut 
oak  is  the  second  best  variety  of  oak,  and  lasts 
about  seven  years.  The  other  varieties  of  oak 
are  not  of  sufficient  durability  to  be  used  much. 
Chestnut  is  equal  in  durability  to  white  oak,  but 
being  a  softer  wood  the  rail  cuts  into  it  more, 
and  it  is  not  suitable  for  use  on  curves.  Several 
varieties  of  pine  are  used,  yellow  and  Louisiana 
and  Texas  long  leaf  pine  being  among  the  best; 
while  they  are  not  hard  woods  they  do  not  de- 
cay rapidly,  and  their  life  on  tangents  is  about 
seven  years,  where  the  traffic  is  heavy;  under 
light  traffic  they  have  lasted  ten  years.  Cedar 
ties  give  satisfaction  with  a  light  traffic  when 
used  on  tangents,  but  the  rail  cuts  into  them 
and  they  do  not  hold  the  spikes  well,  especially 
on  curves;  their  life  can  be  placed  at  about  eight 
years.  Hemlock  and  tamarack  are  used  in  sec- 
tions where  they  grow,  on  account  of  their 
cheapness;  they  are  soft  timber  and  do  not  hold 
the  spikes  well;  the  rail  cuts  into  them,  and 
they  rot  quickly;  their  life  is  probably  from 
four  to  six  years.  Cypress  may  be  classed 
with  the  long  leaf  pine  as  to  wear  and  durability; 
it  will  average  about  eight  years  service.  Red- 
wood is  very  durable,  but,  being  soft,  its  length 
of  service  is  determined  by  the  time  the  rail 
will  cut  into  it  and  destroy  it  from  wear;  its  or- 
dinary life  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  is 


1?6      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

given  from  five  years  up,  depending  on  the 
amount  of  traffic. 

The  cause  of  decay  in  timber  is  given  clearly 
in  the  report  of  a  committee  on  Preservation  of 
Timber' to  the  American  Society  of  Civil  En- 
gineers on  June  25th,  1885,  which  is  as  follows: 

"  Pure  woody  fiber  is  said  by  chemists  to  be 
composed  of  52.4  parts  of  carbon,  41.9  parts  of 
oxygen  and  5.7  parts  of  hydrogen,  and  to  be  the 
same  in  all  the  different  varieties.  If  it  can  be 
entirely  deprived  of  the  sap  and  of  moisture,  it 
undergoes  change  very  slowly,  if  at  all. 

"  Decay  originates  with  the  sap.  This  varies 
from  35  to  55  per  cent,  of  the  whole  when  the 
tree  is  filled,  and  contains  a  great  many  sub- 
stances, such  as  albuminous  matter,  sugar,  starch, 
resin,  etc.,  with  a  large  portion  of  water. 

'  Woody  fiber  alone  will  not  decay,  but  when 
associated  with  the  sap  fermentation  takes  place 
in  the  latter  (with  such  energy  as  may  depend 
upon  its  constituent  elements),  which  act  upon 
the  woody  fiber  and  produce  decay.  In  order 
that  this  may  take  place,  it  is  believed  that  there 
must  be  a  concurrence  of  four  separate  condi- 
tions: 

"  First — The  wood  must  contain  the  elements 
or  germs  of  fermentation  when  exposed  to  air 
and  water. 

"  Second — There  must  be  water  or  moisture  to 
promote  the  fermentation." 

"Third — There  must  be  air  present  to  oxidize 
the  resulting  products. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  17? 

"  Fourth — The  temperature  must  be  approxi- 
mately between  50°  and  100°  F.  Below  32°  F. 
and  above  150°  F.  no  decay  occurs. 

"When,  therefore,  wood  is  exposed  to  the 
weather  (air,  moisture  and  ordinary  tempera- 
ture) fermentation  and  decay  will  take  place, 
unless  the  germs  can  be  removed  or  rendered  in- 
operative. 

"  Experience  has  proven  that  the  coagulation 
of  the  sap  retards,  but  does  not  prevent,  the  de- 
cay of  wood  permanently.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  poison  the  germs  of  decay  which 
may  exist,  or  may  subsequently  enter  the  wood, 
or  to  prevent  their  intrusion,  and  this  is  the  of- 
fice performed  by  the  various  antiseptics. 

"  We  need  not  here  discuss  the  mooted  ques- 
tion between  chemists  whether  fermentation  and 
decay  result  from  slow  combustion  (Erema  causis) 
or  from  the  presence  of  living  organisms  {Bacte- 
ria, etc.)-"* 

The  following  table,  giving  £he  life  of  un- 
treated wooden  railway  ties,  is  taken  from  Bul- 
letin No.  9,  Forestry  Division,  U.  S.  Department 
of  agriculture: 

LIFE  OF  WOODEN  RAILWAY  TIES. 

Railways.                                    Ties.                Av.  life,  years- 
Delaware  &  Hudson White  oak,  7  to  12 

Chestnut,  5  to  10 

Lake  Shore  &  Mich.  Southern . .  White  oak,  6 

Lehigh  Valley White  and  rock  oak,  8 

"             Cypress,  8 

Chestnut,  8 

"             Yellow  pine,  7 

*  Report  A.  S.  C.  E.,  June  25th,  1885,  pp.  288  and  289. 
12    Vol.13 


178      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Railways.  Ties.  Av.  life,  years. 

Pennsylvania White  oak,  5  to    6 

"           Rock  oak,  5  to    6 

Allegheny  Valley White  oak,  9 

Central  of  N.  J Oak,  3 

"        Yellow  pine,  8 

...Chestnut,  « 

Baltimore  &  Ohio Oak,  8 

Boston  &  Maine Chestnut,  cedar  and 

hemlock,  5  to    7 

Michigan  Central Oak,  6  to    9 

Cedar,  6  to    9 

.Tamarack,  4 

"               , Hemlock,  4 

Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 

Chicago  &  St.  Louis White,  burr 

and  chestnut  oak; 
wild  cherry,  honey 
locust  and  black 

walnut.  ab't  9 

Alabama  Midland    Yellow  pine,  5  to    6 

Nashville,  Chattanooga 

&  St.  Louis White  or  post  oak,  6 

Mo.,  Kas.  &  Texas White,  post  and  burr 

oak,    cherry    and 

sassafras,                '  6  to    8 
Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids 

&  Northern White  oak  and  cedar,  8| 

Flint  &  Fere  Marquette Hemlock,  5 

...   ..White  oak,  8  to    9 

Cedar,  8  to  10 

Chicago  &  Alton. Oak,  8 

Cedar,  6 

Chicago  &  Northwestern White  oak,  6  to   8 

Cedar,  10  to  12 

Hemlock,  5  to   7 

Minn.,  St.  Paul  &  Sault 

Ste  Marie Cedar  and  oak,  8  to  10 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  179 

Railways.  Ties.  Av.  life,  years. 

Minn.,  St.  Paul  &  Sault 

Ste  Marie Hemlock  and  tama- 
rack, 6  to    7 
Minn.,  St.  Paul  &  Sault 

Ste  Marie Red  spruce,  6 

Denver  &  Rio  Grande Yellow  pine,  5 

Oak,  6  to  10 

Union  Pacific Pine,  5  to    8 

Red  spruce  8 

White  cedar,  8  to    9 

Pine  (burnettized),  7  to    9 

Oregon  fir  and  pine,  4  to    7 

Tamarack,  5 

Louisville  &  N  ashville .... White  and  post  oak,  7  to    8 

Chicago,  Burl'gton  &  Quincy .  .Oak,  cedar,  8 

..  Yellow  pine,  5  to    7 

TREATED  WOOD  TIES.  In  taking  up  the  subject 
of  ties  and  other  timber  treated  with  wood  pre- 
servatives the  investigator  is  confronted  with  a 
lack  of  reliable  data.  This  lack  of  knowledge  on 
the  subject  has  retarded  the  adoption  of  preserva- 
tive methods  to  a  great  extent. 

Advances  in  the  price  of  ties  have  brought  out 
the  fact  that  available  supplies  of  the  more  dura- 
ble hardwoods  have  been  so  far  exhausted  as 
greatly  to  diminish  the  possible  supply.  Timber 
owners  have  naturally  not  been  slow  to  avail 
themselves  of  this  fact  and  the  railroads  in  many 
sections  of  the  country  are  casting  about  for  a 
remedy.  An  obvious  solution  is  to  follow  Euro- 
pean practice,  and  to  resort  to  the  chemical 
treatment  of  the  more  perishable  woods,  which 
are  still  abundant  and  comparatively  cheap. 

From  a  paper  by  W.  W.  Curtis,  read  before  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  May  17th, 


180       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

1899,  the  inference  may  be  drawn  that  the  prob- 
lem of  treating  the  softer  and  cheaper  woods,  so 
as  to  secure  a  cross  tie  that  will  last  sufficiently 
long  to  make  the  investment  a  financial  success, 
has  been  solved  for  the  United  States.  He  says 
that  "during  the  last  twelve  years  something  like 
10,000,000  cross  ties  have  been  treated,  and  dur- 
ing the  present  year  there  will  probably  be  1,- 
500,000  ties  treated." 

Poor's  Manual  give  the  mileage  of  railways  in 
the  United  States  on  December,  31st,  1898,  as 
follows: 

Mileage 184,894.33  miles. 

Second  track,  sidings,  etc 60,344.54      " 

Total  track 245,238.87      " 

Taking  2,700  ties  per  mile  and  the  average  life 
of  a  tie  as  eight  years,  this  would  require  nearly 
83,000,000  ties  yearly  for  renewals;  besides  which 
perhaps  17,000,000  more  are  required  for  new 
constructions;  taking  the  average  price  of  hard 
and  soft  wood  ties  at  40  cents  each,  and  the  average 
cost  of  labor  in  takmg  an  old  tie  out  and  putting 
a  new  tie  in  the  track  at  15  cents,  the  cost  of  re- 
newals alone  to  the  railroads  of  the  United 
States  would  be  nearly  $45,650,000  per  year.  The 
only  prospect  of  securing  a  reduction  of  this 
yearly  expense  appears  to  be  in  the  adoption  of 
ties  treated  by  some  preservative  process,  and 
the  use  of  tie  plates  on  ties  made  from  the  dura- 
ble soft  woods.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, that  cheapness  of  process  is  not  the  only 
consideration  to  be  taken  into  account.  The  ob- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  181 

ject  sought  by  treating  the  ties  is  to  increase 
their  life  in  the  track,  and  this  can  only  be  se- 
cured by  adopting  some  method  which  has  been 
thoroughly  tried  and  is  honestly  carried  out. 
European  experience  covers  a  period  of  forty  to 
fifty  years,  and  in  the  United  States  it  has  been 
carried  on  on  a  considerable  scale  for  over  four- 
teen years.  The  results  prove  that  wood  can  be 
effectually  protected  from  decay  for  a  period  long 
enough  to  add  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent,  to 
the  life  of  the  tie.  An  important  point  which 
railroads  using  preservative  processes  should  in- 
sist upon  being  faithfully  carried  out  is  the  rec- 
ord of  the  life  of  the  tie.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
neglected  though  essential  points.  To  determine 
this  the  tie  should  be  stamped  on  the  end  with 
the  date  it  was  treated.  In  France  and  Germany 
a  galvanized  nail,  having  the  date  stamped  on 
the  head,  is  driven  in  the  top  of  the  tie  in  addi- 
tion to  stamping  it  and  a  similar  practice  is  being 
adopted  in  the  United  States. 

Where  the  ties  are  thus  marked  the  only 
further  requirement  is  to  record  where  they  were 
laid  and  when  they  are  removed,  and  all  that  is 
necessary  is  a  simple  blank  by  which  the  section 
foreman  can  report  the  date  the  tie  was  stamped, 
what  portion  of  the  road  it  was  removed  from, 
and  the  cause  of  removal.* 

During  the  last  one  hundred  years  scores  of 
processes  have  been  experimented  with,  chiefly 

*The  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Company  seeins  to  have  kept 
the  most  complete  records  of  treated  ties  of  any  road  in  the 
United  States. 


182      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

in  Europe,  and  hundreds  of  failures  have  occurred. 
It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  choice  of  chem- 
icals to  be  employed  is  limited  to  a  few,  and  that 
not  only  must  the  most  appropriate  process  be 
selected,  in  view  of  the  character  of  the  wood  to 
be  operated  upon,  its  cost  or  value,  and  its  subse- 
quent exposure,  but  also  that  minute  care  must 
be  observed  in  the  various  operations  incident  to 
the  process.  The  importance  of  this  is  evident 
when  it  is  considered  that  time  is  the  only  sure 
test,  and  that  ten  or  fifteen  years  must  elapse  be- 
fore it  is  positively  known  whether  a  thorough 
success  has  been  achieved. 

In  a  general  way  the  approved  methods  of  pre- 
serving timber  may  be  classed  as  follows: 

Kyanizing — or  use  of  corrosive  sublimate. 
Burnettizing — or  use  of  chloride  of  zinc. 
Creosoting — or  use  of  creosote  oil. 
Boucherie — or  use  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  methods,  but  at 
present  burnettizing  and  creosoting  appear  to  be 
the  most  used  in  the  United  States. 

There  are  a  number  of  conditions  which  affect 
the  value  of  preservative  processes,  as  shown  by 
the  wide  variation  of  the  life  of  treated  ties. 
Thus  the  time  of  the  year  the  timber  is  cut 
and  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  tie  at  the 
time  it  is  treated  are  among  the  known  factors 
bearing  on  the  results  obtained  by  the  treat- 
ment. 

The  theory  of  the  process  of  wood  preservation 
is  to  withdraw  the  moisture  or  sap  and  to  intro- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  183 

duce  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  an  antiseptic  to 
prevent  decay.  The  American  literature  on  the 
subject  is  limited;  the  report  of  the  committee 
to  the  American  Society  of  Engineers  on  June 
25th,  1885,  and  the  paper  read  by  Mr.  Curtis  be- 
fore the  same  Society  on  May  17th,  1899,  are 
about  as  full  as  can  at  present  be  procured.  On 
page  377  of  the  report  above  referred  to,  Mr.  0. 
Latimer,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Atlantic  &  Great 
Western  Railroad,  stated  that  his  experience 
showed  "that  white  oak  ties  last  eight  years 
on  the  grade  and  nine  years  on  bridges.'7 
"Eleven  years  ago  the  white  oak  ties  cost  fifty 
cents,  to-day  (1885)  they  cost  forty-five  cents 
per  tie."*  The  same  engineer  on  page  378  states: 
"If  any  process  can  be  obtained  which  will 
double  or  add  fifty  per  cent,  to  the  life  of  cedar 
or  hemlock  ties,  of  course  there  is  an  immense 
economy  in  it." 

In  regard  to  the  price  of  cross  ties,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  while  for  a  period  of  several 
years  there  may  be  no  permanent  change  in  the 
price,  yet  the  source  of  supply  is  constantly 
being  reduced,  and  each  year  a  tie  of  poorer 
quality  is  being  accepted;  there  must,  therefore, 
come  a  time  when  contractors  will  realize  that 
the  source  of  supply  is  being  reduced,  and  a 
permanent  rise  in  the  price  will  take  place 


*  A  condition  that  tends  to  discourage  investments  in  this  di- 
rection is  the  uncertainty  regarding  the  price  that  timber  will 
command  in  the  future.  The  cheapening  of  freight  rates  some- 
times enables  the  supply  of  cross  ties  to  be  procured  from  dis- 
tricts which  a  few  years  before  were  considered  inaccessible. 


184      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

which  will  doubtless  be  followed  by  a  period  of 
approximately  uniform  prices.  Thus  considered 
oak  ties  may  be  said  to  have  advanced  from  16 
to  65  cents  per  tie  in  the  last  forty  years. 

Preservative  processes  it  must  be  remembered 
will  augment  the  supply  of  wooden  ties,  inas- 
much as  some  of  the  softer  woods  now  rejected 
will  be  available  when  treated;  thus  the  hem- 
lock of -the  Northern  States  and  the  lob  lolly  and 
short  leaf  pine  of  the  Southern  States  properly 
treated  will  make  excellent  ties. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  wood  preserving 
processes  have  been  niBasureably  successful.  In 
the  paper  of  Mr.  Curtis  before  referred  to  he 
states:  "The  experience  of  American  roads 
with  treated  ties  may  be  concluded  to  be  gener- 
ally favorable.  The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 
Fe  Railway  officials,  after  twelve  years  trial  on  a 
large  scale,  believe  they  are  getting  from  eleven 
to  twelve  years  service  from  mountain  pine  hav- 
ing a  natural  life  of  about  four  years,  while  from 
natural  (untreated)  white  oak  they  get  but  six 
years  in  heavy  main  line  service,  and  from  cedar 
ten  years  under  light  service."  Good  results 
with  treated  ties  are  also  reported  from  the  fol- 
lowing roads:  Union  Pacific  Railway;  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  &  Pacific  Railway;  Pittsburg,  Ft. 
Wayne  &  Chicago  Railway;  Duluth  &  Iron  Range 
Railway;  Southern  Pacific  Railway.  The  expe- 
rience of  the  English,  French  and  German  rail- 
roads is  that  pine  ties  are  made  to  last  from  fif- 
teen to  thirty  years  by  chemical  treatment,  the 
life  depending  upon  the  process  adopted. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  185 

The  cost  of  treating  woods  varies  greatly  in 
the  different  processes  and  methods;  it  is  also 
affected  by  the  price  of  chemicals  used,  the  vol- 
ume of  the  business  done,  the  skill  and  efficiency 
of  the  men  employed,  cost  of  coal,  etc.  The  rail- 
road manager  contemplating  the  adoption  of  a 
preservative  process  for  his  road  will  have  to 
take  into  account  the  conditions  on  his  line,  con- 
sidering the  character  of  the  timber  he  can  pro- 
cure, and  to  adopt  the  method  and  processes  best 
suited  for  such  timber.  A  German  report  on 
railways*  gi^es  the  following  information: 

TIES  TREATED  BY  CHLORIDE  OF  ZINC. 

Kind  of  tie Oak  Beech  Pine 

Cost  of  crude  tie $1.49  $1.01  $0.84 

Absorption,  Ibs 24.2  34  34 

Cost  of  treatment.  $0.13  $0.15  $0.16 

Total  cost $1.62  $1.16  $1.00 

Average  life,  years 15  9  12 

Cost  per  year $0.108  $0.13  $0.083 

TIES  TREATED  BY  CREOSOTE. 

Absorption,  Ibs 15.4  66  50.6 

24.3  79.2  79.2 

Cost  of  treatment .  $0.21  $0.50  $0.43 

.29  .59  .57 

Total  cost $1.70  $1.51  $1.27 

1.78  1.60  1.41 

Average  life,  years 24  30  20 

28  34  23 

Cost  per  year $0.071  $0.05  $0.063 

.063  .047  .061 

The  life  of  ties  can  be  prolonged  to  some  ex- 
tent by  a  study  of  the  nature  of  the  various 

*  Published  in  the  "Organ  of  the  Progress  of  Railroads,"  Se- 
ries 1897.  Wiesbaden. 


186       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

woods  used.  In  this  relation  Mr.  B.  E.  Fernow, 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Forestry  Division  aptly  points  out  that  not  only 
the  different  species  of  wood  in  practical  use 
show  varying  durability,  that  is,  resistance  to 
decay,  but  the  same  species  exhibits  variation 
according  to  the  locality  where  it  is  grown  and 
the  part  of  the  tree  from  which  the  wood  is 
taken,  and  even  its  age  seems  to  influence  dura- 
bility. Young  wood,  he  observes,  is  more  sus- 
ceptible of  decay  than  old  wood;  sap  wood  is 
less  durable  than  the  heart.  The  idea  that 
young  wood  is  more  durable  because  it  is  young, 
which  seems  to  prevail  among  railway  managers, 
must,  he  says,  be  considered  erroneous.  On  the 
contrary,  young  wood,  which  contains  a  large 
amount  of  albuminates,  the  food  of  fungi,  is 
more  apt  to  decay,  other  things  being  equal, 
than  the  wood  of  older  timber.  Sound,  mature, 
well  grown  trees  yield  more  durable  timber  than 
either  young  or  very  old  trees.  Kapid  growth 
exhibited  in  broad  annual  rings  and  due  to 
favorable  soil  and  light  conditions,  yields  the 
most  durable  timber  in  hard  woods,  and  only  as 
far  as  the  growth  in  the  virgin  forest  has  been 
slow,  ought  there  to  be  a  difference  in  favor  of 
second  growth  timber.  In  conifers,  however, 
slow  growth  with  narrow  rings,  which  contain 
more  of  the  dense  summer  wood  in  a  given 
space,  yields  the  better  timber.  In  piling  ties, 
he  recommends  that  they  should  be  placed  in 
squares,  with  not  over  fifty  ties  in  a  pile,  in  such 
a  manner  that  one  tier  shall  contain  six  to  nine 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  187 

t;  3S,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  space  equal 
to  about  the  width  of  the  tie;  the  next  tier  to 
consist  of  one  tie  placed  crosswise  at  each  end  of 
the  first  tier.  The  bottom  tie  should  consist  of 
two  ties,  or  better,  poles,  to  raise  the  pile  from 
the  ground.  The  piles  should  be  five  feet  apart. 
The  piling  ground  should  be  somewhere  in  the 
woods,  or  at  least  away  from  the  sun,  wind  and 
rain,  so  as  to  secure  a  slow  and  uniform  season- 
ing. If  dried  too  rapidly,  the  wood  warps  and 
splits,  the  cracks  collect  water,  and  the  timber  is 
then  easily  attacked  and  destroyed  by  rot.  He 
points  out  that  the  best  method  of  obtaining 
proper  seasoning,  in  a  shorter  time,  without 
costly  apparatus,  is  to  immerse"  the  prepared  tim- 
ber in  water  from  one  to  three  weeks,  in  order 
to  dissolve  and  leach  out  the  fermentable  mat- 
ter nearest  the  surface.  This  is  best  done  in 
running  water — if  such  is  not  at  hand,  a  tank 
may  be  substituted,  the  water  of  which  needs, 
however,  frequent  change.  Timber  so  treated, 
like  raft  timber,  will  season  more  quickly,  and  is 
known  to  be  more  durable.  The  application  of 
boiling  water  or  steam  is  advantageous  in  leach- 
ing out  the  sap.  Referring  to  the  decay  of  rail- 
way ties,  he  ascribes  the  lack  of  durability  to  two 
causes,  viz.:  (1)  a  mechanical  one,  the  breaking 
of  the  wood  fiber  by  the  flange  of  the  rail  and  by 
the  spikes,  and  (2)  a  chemical  or  physiological 
one,  the  rot  or  decay  which  is  due  to  fungus 
growth.  These  causes  work  either  in  combina- 
tion or,  more  rarely,  independently.  The  cut- 
ting of  the  wood  may  be  prevented  by  the  use  of 


188      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRlJXb  RAILWAYS. 

tie  plates.  The  damage  caused  by  the  spikes 
may  be  lessened  as  pointed  out  elsewhere.  In 
reference  to  drainage  he  suggests  that  rock  bal- 
last is  best  drained,  and  hence  the  best  record 
comes  from  such  roadbeds;  gravel  is  next  best, 
and  clay  or  loam  the  worst.  On  the  other  hand, 
where  soft  wood  ties  like  chestnut  are  used,  the 
hard  rock  ballast,  while  unfavorable  to  decay, 
reduces  their  life  by  pounding  and  cutting.  Sand 
ballast  seems  to  vary  considerably;  a  sharp, 
coarse,  silicious  (not  calcareous)  sand  with  goo«5 
underdrainage  should  be  next  to  gravel,  while 
some  reports  give  a  heavy  black  soil  and  loam  as 
better  than  sand.  The  reason  why  sand,  although 
offering  good  drainage,  is  favorable  to  decay, 
may  be  sought  in  its  great  capacity  for  heat, 
which  induces  fermentation.  Referring  to  wood 
preservatives,  Mr.  Fernow  says  in  France  wooden 
ties  are  universally  subjected  to  preservatives; 
that  similar  practices  are  quite  general  in  Eng- 
land and  throughout  Europe,  caused  by  the  scarc- 
ity of  wood,  and  its  great  cost.  He  ascribes  lack 
of  interest  in  the  subject  in  the  United  States  to 
ignorance,  to  unwise  economy,  to  cheapness  of 
wooden  ties,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  flange  cut- 
ting of  the  rail  is  even  more  destructive  than  de- 
cay. He  recommends  the  use  of  tie  plates  in 
order  to  prevent  this. 

The  following  table  gives  the  size  of  ties  used 
by  some  of  the  railroads  in  the  United  States: 

Length.         Width.      Thickness. 
Railway.  Feet.  Inches.      Inches.       Inches. 

Pennsylvania  Railway 8        6  7 

Southern  Pacific  Cypress 10        0  10  7 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  189 

Length.         Width.     Thickness. 
Railway.  Feet.  Inches.     Inches.       Inches. 

Southern  Pacific  Cypress 9        0  10  7 

"  "       Pine 808  6 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  . .  8        0  6 

Chicago  &  Northwestern 8        0  8  6 

New  York  Central 8        0  8  7 

Pittsburg  &  Lake  Erie 869  7 

Ties  are  spaced  differently  on  different  roads. 
The  following  table  gives  the  spacing  used  to  a 
thirty  foot  rail  by  some  of  the  roads  in  the 
United  States: 

Pennsylvania,  Main  Line 14  wide  ties. 

"  Sidings 12  ties. 

Northern  Pacific 16 

Chesapeake  &  Ohio 18 

Central  Ry.  of  New  Jersey 16 

Southern  Pacific,  Main  Line  17 

"  "        Branches 15 

The  joint  ties  should  be  the  largest  ones  and 
should  be  more  closely  placed  than  the  others  to 
give  a  better  bearing  for  the  rail  ends. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  ties 
per  mile  of  single  track: 

CROSS  TIES  PER  MILE. 
Center  to  Center.  Ties  per  Mile. 

18  inches 3,520 

21      "      3,017 

24      "      2,640 

27      "      2,347 

30      "      2,112 

No.  of  ties  per  30-ft.  rail  12 2,112 

"       "        "     14 2,464 

"       "        "    16 2,816 

«          "       "      «<        "     18  .  3,108 


190       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Metal  ties  have  been  used  to  a  large  extent  in 
some  countries  where  timber  is  scarce  or  decays 
rapidly.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  styles  and 
patents,  but  in  a  general  way  they  can  be  classed 
under  three  heads,  viz: 

Longitudinal  Supports.  This  method  is  accom- 
plished by  placing  iron  plates  under  each  rail, 
and  holding  the  two  rails  together  by  means  of 
rods  or  iron  bars.  The  metal  plates  are  of  vari- 
ous designs  and  dimensions.  This  method  has 
been  used  more  in  Germany  and  Austria  than 
anywhere  else;  the  Germans  are  not,  as  a  rule, 
satisfied  with  it  and  it  is  being  abandoned.  The 
method  is  still  favored  by  some  Austrian  roads. 

Bowls  and  Plates.  This  is  a  modified  form  of 
longitudinal  supports.  Cast  iron  bowl  shaped 
plates  are  used  in  p]ace  of  wrought  iron  or  steel 
plates  in  the  longitudinal  method;  these  are  con- 
nected by  rods  or  bars  of  iron  to  hold  the  rails  to 
gauge — they  are  mostly  used  in  India  and  South 
America. 

Metal  Ties  are  the  third  style  and  these  are 
designed  after  the  wooden  cross  tie,  with  such 
changes  as  become  necessary  in  a  change  from 
wood  to  iron  or  steel.  This  form  of  metal  tie  is 
more  largely  used  than  any  other. 

The  latest  reliable  data  of  the  mileage  of  metal 
ties  in  use  in  Europe  is  given  in  Bulletin  No.  9 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  For- 
estry Division,  and  the  figures  given  there  are 
used  in  the  following  tables: 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


191 


SUMMARY  OF  TRACK  IN  EUROPE  LAID  WITH 
METAL  TIES. 


Countries. 


Longitudinal,  Cross  tie,  Total  miles,  Total  miles, 


miles. 

miles. 

1894. 

1890. 

England  

73 

73 

70 

France  

128 

128 

52 

Holland  

322 

322 

329 

Belgium  

176 

l?6 

115 

Germany  3,580 

8,025 

11,605 

8,787 

Austria  &  Hungary.  .           62£ 

154 

216J 

123 

Bosnia  

12 

12 

Switzerland  

480 

480 

397 

Spain  

7 

7 

7 

Portugal  

1 

1 

* 

Sweden  &  Norway.  .  . 

i 

* 

* 

Denmark  

18 

18 

18 

Russia  2 

7 

9 

Turkey  (Europe)  

71 

71 

71 

"       (Asia)  

309 

309 

Greece  

28 

28 

Totals 3,644^ 


13456 


9,970 


SUMMARY  OF  TRACK  LAID  WITH  METAL  TIES  BY 
GEOGRAPHICAL  DIVISIONS. 


H 

94                 | 

18' 

)0 

Miles  of 
metal  track 

Total  miles 
of  track. 

Miles  of 
metal  track 

Total  miles 
of  track. 

13,456 

137  000 

9  970 

132  071 

Africa  

2,401 

5  675 

1  290 

5  200 

Australia  

234 

12,000 

186 

10  640 

Asia          .        

14,586 

22,000 

9  314 

19  106 

South  America  ] 
Central      " 
West  Indies        [  ' 
Mexico 
K  orth  America  .... 

4,416 
2* 

21,500 
190  000 

3,764 
2 

20,701 
174  000 

Totals  

35,095 

388,175 

24,526 

361,718 

*Ten  miles  of  track  on  the  New  York  Central  Railway  are  not 
included;  the  inets.1  ties  were  purchased  but  were  not  yet  laid. 


192       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

The  following  countries  are  the  principal  users 
of  metal  ties: 

Countries.  Mileage,  1894. 

British  India 13,655 

Germany 11,605 

Argentine  Republic 3,638 

Cape  Colony 906 

Egypt 866 

All  other  countries 4,425 

Totals 85,095 

The  report  already  referred  to  gave  the  follow- 
ing mileage  of  metal  ties  in  the  United  States  in 
the  1894  Summary  of  Railways  using  metal  ties 
in  the  United  States: 

Roads.  Length  in  feet  of  track  laid  with  metal  ties. 

1894.  1899. 

Chicago  &  Western  Indiana 1,000  none 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  West- 
ern        250 

Long  Island 950 

New  York  Central 1,320  Further  use  disc't'd. 

Philadelphia  &  Reading 5,280  none 

Minor  experiments  (estimated).      500  Use  discontinued. 

Totals 9,300 

European  practice  has  proven  the  metal  tie  to 
be  economically  successful  under  the  conditions 
which  prevail  there. 

To  prevent  the  metal  tie  being  lifted  by  frost 
or  lowered  when  the  ground  thaws,  the  ballast 
must  allow  the  water  to  drain  off  and  through  it 
readily;  the  German  practice  is  to  drain  the  water 
off  down  to  a  point  below  the  frost  line.  The 
ballast  should  be  stone  broken  to  go  through  a 
2-inch  ring.  The  tie  should  be  well  bedded  in 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  193 

the  ballast  to  hold  it  in  line.  The  experience 
abroad  with  metal  ties,  is  that  more  labor  is  re- 
quired in  tamping  them  the  first  year  or  two 
than  in  the  case  of  wooden  ties,  but  after  this 
they  require  much  less  labor  to  tamp  them 
than  wooden  ties  do.  There  are  several  causes 
which  have  prevented  the  introduction  of  the 
metal  ties  into  the  United  States,  the  greatly  in- 
creased first  cost  over  wooden  ties  being  the  prin- 
cipal one;  to  assist  in  overcoming  this  they  have 
been  made  too  light  to  stand  the  effects  of  corro- 
sion. The  cost  of  metal  ties  weighing  100  pounds 
was  in  1894  from  $2.00  to  $2.25  per  tie,  depend- 
ing on  the  method  of  fastening  the  rail  to  the  tie. 
Another  reason  for  their  unpopularity  in  the 
United  States  is  that  they  have  been  tried  on 
roadbeds  not  properly  ballasted  and  drained  for 
metal  ties  and  have  been  looked  after  by  section 
men  who  were  not  favorably  impressed  with  their 
utility.  Further  it  may  be  stated  that  in  a  num- 
ber of  cases  their  trial  was  on  too  small  a  scale. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  use  of  the  metal  tie 
is  probably  a  factor  which  will  not  receive  prac- 
tical consideration  from  the  hands  of  railroad 
managers  in  the  United  States  for  sometime  in 
the  future.  The  line  along  which  present  econom- 
ical practice  points  is  the  use  of  tie  plates  and 
rail  braces  on  our  untreated  ties  and  this  will 
probably  be  followed  by  a  more  general  use  of 
preservative  processes  to  lengthen  the  life  of  the 
wooden  tie. 

Following  are  some  illustrations  of  metal  ties: 
Fig.  9  5  illustrates  the  metal  tie  used  by  the  Dela- 

13    Vol.    13 


194       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


195 


-j'Vzif 


196       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  Eailway.  Fig.  96 
illustrates  the  metal  tie  used  by  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad. 

The  literature  on  metal  ties  is  well  given  by 
Bulletins  Nos.  4  and  9,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Forestry  Division  Synopses  of  re- 
ports on  their  use  in  the  Netherlands  and  Switz- 
erland in  the  Engineering  News  for  1898. 

TIE    PLATES. 

To  prolong  the  life  of  the  cross-tie  by  prevent 
ing  the  rail  from  cutting  into  the  tie,  tie  plates 
have  been  introduced.  There  are  three  general 
styles,  based  on  the  following  principles:  First, 
ribs  are  placed  on  the  under  side  of  the  tie  plate 
running  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the 
plate,  these  are  driven  into  the  tie  and  separate, 
but  do  not  break  up  the  fiber  of  the  wood;  with 
this  style  of  tie  plate  the  greatest  resistance  to 
the  movement  of  the  plate  is  in  the  direction  of 
across  the  tie  or  in  the  length  of  the  rail;  the 
spikes  on  both  sides  of  the  rail  being  connected 
by  the  tie  plate,  both  resist  the  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  rail  and  are  assisted  by  the  friction 
and  end  resistance  of  the  ribs  pressed  into  the 
tie.  The  spikes  used  with  this  tie  plate  are  sub- 
jected to  the  wearing  action  of  the  rail,  but  to  a 
less  extent  than  without  it.  Some  forms  of  this 
style  have  a  rib  which  comes  in  contact  with  the 
outside  of  the  rail  base  to  assist  the  spikes  in  re- 
sisting the  lateral  motion  of  the  rail.  Fig.  97 
illustrates  an  example  of  this  style.  Second, 
lugs  are  placed  on  the  under  side  in  such  a  posi- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION, 


197 


tion  that  their  largest  surface  is  resisted  by  the 
end  wood  of  the  tie  when  there  is  a  lateral  press- 


FIG.  97. 


WOLHAUPTER  TIE  PLATE. 
With  rib  to  resist  the  lateral  motion  of  the  rail. 

ure  produced  by  a  passing  train;  on  the  top  of 
the  plate  there  is  placed  a  lug  against  which  the 
outside  of  the  base  of  the  rail  is  placed.  The 
lateral  movement  of  the  rail  is  resisted  by  the 
spikes  as  in  the  first  case,  and  also  the  greater 
resistance  of  the  lugs  against  the  end  wood  of. 
the  tie.  The  base  of  the  rail,  during  its  lateral 
movements,  is  resisted  by  the  lug  on  top  of  and 
extending  across  the  plate,  thus  relieving  the 
spikes  of  the  wearing  action  of  the  base  of  the 


FIG.  98. 

GOLDIE    CLAW  TIE  PLATE. 

With  lug  to  prevent  the  lateral  movement  of  the  rail. 


198       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

rail.     Fig.    98   illustrates   an   example   of    this 
style.     Third,   this   method   aims   to   have   the 


FIG.  99. 

THE  C.  A.  C.  TIE  PLATE. 


FIG.  100. 

THE  "SERVIS"  TIE  PLATE. 


FIG.  101. 

WOLHAUPTEB  ARCH  GIRDER  TIE  PLATE. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  199 

plate  bolted  or  spiked  to  the  tie  and  the  rail  fast- 
ened rigidly  to  the  tie  plate.  This  is  Sandberg's 
type  of  tie  plate.  Figs.  99,  100  and  101  illus- 
trate other  makes  of  the  first  two  styles.  The 
same  objection  applies  to  the  third  style  of  tie 
plate,  which  was  found  to  the  use  of  screws  in- 
stead of  spikes  to  fasten  the  rail  to  the  ties;  by 
the  use  of  screws  the  rails  were  held  rigidly  to 
the  tie  and  the  wave  action  produced  by  the 
train  on  the  rail  caused  the  tie  to  work  more  (or 
pump  the  ballast)  than  where  spikes  were  used, 
thus  increasing  the  cost  of  track  repairs. 

Where  tie  plates  are  not  used  on  all  the  ties 
in  a  track  they  will  be  found  of  special  benefit 
under  the  following  conditions:  On. heavy  grades 
and  sharp  curves  they  prevent  the  cutting  of  the 
tie  and  canting  the  rail  and  preserve  the  gauge 
without  the  use  of  rail  braces.  In  tunnels  where 
the  moisture  tends  to  soften  the  tie,  they  pre- 
vent the  rail  cutting  into  it  and  preserve  the 
gauge.  On  swampy  ground  where  the  roadbed 
yields  under  the  weight  of  the  train,  they  pre- 
vent ties  being  cut  into  by  the  rail,  which  leads 
to  excessive  creeping  of  the  rails.  On  long 
bridges,  elevated  roads,  in  busy  freight  yards, 
where  trains  are  frequent,  track  deteriorates  rap- 
idly, and  the  cost  of  labor  making  repairs  and 
renewals  is  large.  At  road  and  street  crossings 
where  the  planking  keeps  the  ties  moist  they 
deteriorate  quickly. 

Ties  which  have  been  cut  into  by  the  rail  can 
be  used  again  by  adzing  them  down,  plugging 
the  spike  holes  with  hard  wood  and  using  a  tie 
plate. 


200        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Of  the  various  styles  each  has  its  advantages 
and  objections.  The  friends  of  the  first  style 
claim  that  the  metal  is  not  properly  distributed 
in  the  second  and  they  will  sometimes  buckle 
when  a  heavy  transverse  strain  is  produced  by  a 
passing  train  on  a  curve;  those  favorable  to  the 
second  style  claim  that  the  lack  of  a  shoulder  to 
support  the  base  of  the  rail  and  not  having  the 
resistance  of  the  end  wood  of  the  tie  to  oppose  a 
movement  of  the  tie  plate  does  not  hold  the 
track  to  gauge  as  well  as  the  second  style  of 
plate  and  permits  the  spikes  to  be  injured  more. 
There  are,  it  may  be  said,  conditions  where  each 
claim  is  well  founded,  and  the  selection  of  style 
will  depend  .on  the  conditions  of  traffic,  grade 
and  alignment. 

RAILS. 

The  rails  now  used  are  manufactured  of  steel, 
iron  having  gone  out  of  use  on  account  of  the 
greater  length  of  life  of  steel  and  the  price  being 
reduced  to  a  point  where  there  is  no  longer  a 
saving  in  the  use  of  iron.  Formerly  each  road 
had  its  own  standard  section  for  the  rails  used. 
This  resulted  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  of  sec- 
tions, some  of  which,  however,  were  practically 
the  same,  differing  only  in  minor  details. 

In  1873  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers appointed  a  committee  to  report  upon  the 
forms,  sizes,  manufacture,  tests,  endurance  and 
breakage  of  rails  and  also  the  comparative  econ- 
omy of  iron  and  steel.  In  1883  the  same  body 
appointed  another  committee  to  consider  the 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  201 

proper  relation  to  each  other  of  railway  wheels 
and  rails.  This  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  third 
committee  to  prepare  designs  for  standard  rail 
sections.  In  Appendix  J  there  is  a  cut  showing 
the  section  adopted  and  the  dimensions  for  rails 
of  different  weights.  Mr.  E.  E.  R.  Tratman  in  his 
work  on  "  Track  and  Track  Work  "  speaks  of  rails 
as  follows:  "  Tie  plates  should  be  used  with  heavy 
traffic,  as  the  attempt  to  get  a  very  wide  base 
support  in  the  rail  flange  usually  results  in  a 
section  which  is  not  adapted  to  good  rolling. 
Flat-topped  rail  heads  have  been  advocated,  but 
the  metal  in  the  head  does  not  get  so  much  work 
or  squeeze  from  the  rolls,  and  is  thus  of  less 
dense  texture  on  top  than  is  desirable.  This  was 
found  with  rails  rolled  in  England  25  or  30  years 
ago  for  the  New  Orleans  &  Chattanooga  Railway. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  lateral  play  of  the  wheels 
would  soon  wear  the  top  to  a  curved  section. 
The  usual  top  radius  is  12  or  14  inches,  though 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Railway  makes 
it  18  inches,  and  any  radius  less  than  12  inches 
is  objectionable.  The  best  distribution  of  the 
metal  is  probably  that  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers  recommended  sections,  pro- 
vided that  the  rails  are  of  good  material  and 
thoroughly  rolled,  the  rolling  being  as  slow  and 
cold  as  practicable. 

"The  rapid  increase  in  weight  of  locomotives 
and  cars  and  train  loads  has  led  to  the  use  of 
heavier  and  stiff er  rails  in  the  sense  of  girders  to 
carry  the  increased  loads,  but  in  many  cases 
without  correspondingly  wider  heads  to  sustain 


202       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  increased  wheel  pressure  ratios  per  square 
inch  of  surface  contact  between  rails  and  wheels. 
The  result  in  some  such  cases  has  been  that  the 
metal  of  both  tires  and  rails  has  been  overtaxed, 
excessive  wear  and  flow  taking  place,  and  neither 
wheels  nor  rails  giving  as  good  service  as  had 
been  expected.  With  this  in  view,  Mr.  P.  H. 
Dudley  designed  a  set  of  rail  sections  whose  type 
is  shown  by  the  100-lb.  rail  of  the  New  York 
Central  Railway.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
fillets  are  of  large  radius,  and  that  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  web  is  above  the  centre  line.  This 
gives  extra  resistance  to  twisting,  so  that  the 
head  will  not  bend  over  the  web,  nor  the  web 
over  the  base.  The  following  is  from  a  state- 
ment by  Mr.  Dudley: 

"The  static  pressures  under  passenger  car 
wheels  on  rail  heads  2J  to  2f  inches  wide,  range 
from  30,000  to  100,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  while 
those  of  locomotive  driving  wheels  range  from 
110,000  to  150,000  Ibs.  To  sustain  such  wheel 
pressures  without  undue  flow  and  wear,  requires 
not  only  broad  heads,  but  a  high  grade  of  metal 
in  the  rails.  Comparisons  of  tire  records  on  the 
New  York  Central  Railway  before  and  after  the 
use  of  the  Dudley  80-lb.  rail  (5J  inches  high, 
5  inches  width  of  base,  2H  inches  width  of  head 
and  h  inch  corners  of  head)  show  that  with  an 
increase  of  40  per  cent,  in  weight  per  driving 
wheel  the  mileage  per  i\  inch  of  wear  per  tire  is 
about  the  same  for  the  heavier  locomotives  on 
the  80-lb.  rails,  as  formerly  for  the  lighter  loco- 
motives on  the  65-lb.  rails.  The  former  carried 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  203 

17,600  Ibs.  per  wheel,  and  averaged  19,300  miles 
per  i1.  inch  wear  of  tire.  The  latter  carried  13,- 
360  Ibs.  per  wheel,  and  averaged  19,400  miles 
per  A  inch  wear.  Since  the  general  use  of  this 
80-lb.  rail,  the  locomotives  rarely  go  to  the  shop 
to  have  the  driving  wheel  tires  turned  unless 
other  repairs  are  needed,  the  wear  of  the  tires  no 
longer  determining  when  the  engines  must  go  to 
the  shop,  as  was  the  case  when  running  on  the 
65-lb.  rails.  The  mileage  before  re-turning  the 
tires  is  from  150,000  to  185,000  miles.  These 
facts  show  the  value  of  the  broad  heads  in  in- 
creasing the  life  of  tires  as  well  as  of  rails. 

"  Mr.  Sandberg,  the  European  rail  expert,  favors 
wide  heads,  with  large  corners,  and  his  type  of 
section  is  represented  by  the  72-lb.  rail  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  In  1894  he  changed 
his  sections  somewhat  in  detail,  his  modified 
100-lb.  rail  being  5f  inches  high,  6i  inches  wide, 
with  a  head  3  inches  wide,  having  i-inch  top 
corners.  He  increased  the  width  of  the  head,  but 
retained  the  round  form  with  large  corners  and 
a  top  radius  of  6  inches.  He  admits  that  sharper 
corners  may  be  used  with  the  American  type  of 
rolling  stock,  having  the  short,  rigid  wheel  base  of 
the  trucks  instead  of  the  long,  rigid  wheel  base  of 
European  cars  with  fixed  axles,  but  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  this  distinction  is  of  much  im- 
portance. The  width  of  rail  base  was  increased, 
so  as  to  avoid  the  use  of  tie  plates,  for  while  he 
advocates  their  use,  he  has  found  it  difficult  to 
get  them  introduced  by  European  railways.  The 
rail  section  has  suffered  in  consequence,  and  even 


204      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

with  oak  ties  (and  almost  certainly  with  softer 
ties)  the  rails  will  still  cut  under  heavy  traffic 
and  wheel  loads.  One  reason  for  the  disfavor 
with  which  tie-plates  are  regarded  in  Europe  is 
probably  the  size  and  weight  and  cost,  and  the 
difficulty  of  securing  flat  plates  firmly  to  the  tie, 
so  as  not  to  cause  rattling.  It  may  be  mentioned 
that  some  of  the  so-called  Sandberg  'Goliath' 
rails  are  modified  from  the  original  to  a  section 
for  which  Mr.  Sandberg  disclaims  responsibility. 

"  Double-Head  Rails.  In  Europe  the  double- 
headed  rail,  carried  in  cast-iron  chairs,  was  early 
designed,  having  two  symmetrical  heads,  so  that 
the  rail  could  be  reversed  and  both  ends  be  util- 
ized for  wear.  Some  of  the  sections  were  of 
hour-glass  section,  with  two  pear-shaped  heads. 
The  indentation  of  the  lower  head  by  the  chairs, 
however,  made  the  turned  rails  very  rough  rid- 
ing, and  the  rails  were  also  found  liable  to  break, 
so  that  as  early  as  1858  the  bull-head  section 
was  introduced,  having  the  lower  head  only  large 
enough  to  give  a  seat  in  the  chair  and  a  hold  for 
the  wooden  key  or  wedge  which  secures  the  rail 
in  the  chair.  .  Some  years  ago  about  ten  miles  of 
80-lb.  iron  double-headed  rails  were  laid  on  the 
Boston  &  Worcester  Railway  (now  part  of  the 
Boston  &  Albany  Railway),  but  after  ten  years' 
service  the  track  was  relaid  with  T-rails.  The 
bull-head  rail  is  now  the  standard  in  England, 
and  is  also  used  somewhat  extensively  in  Euro- 
pean countries,  India,  etc.  The  Pennsylvania 
Railway  has  some  of  the  90-lb.  bull-head  rails  of 
the  London  &  Northwestern  Railway,  laid  for  ex- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  205 

perimental  purposes,  some  on  steel  ties,  and 
others  in  cast-iron  chairs  on  wooden  ties,  but 
this  track  has  not  been  able  to  stand  the  heavy 
traffic  on  this  road.  One  of  the  great  objections 
to  these  rails  is  that  they  require  two  heavy  cast- 
iron  chairs  (weighing  26  to  56  pounds  each)  on 
every  tie,  merely  to  hold  the  rail  up.  These 
chairs  involve  much  really  useless  material,  and 
the  wear  of  the  rails  in  the  chairs  limits  their 
life,  being  even  more  than  the  wear  at  the  joints. 
Many  of  these  rails  have  rounded  heads,  but  in 
some  of  the  modern  heavy  sections  the  head  has 
vertical  sides  and  sharper  top  corners. 

Many  countries  now  recognize  the  disadvant- 
ages of  the  bull-head  rail,  and  are  adopting  a 
more  economical,  but  equally  efficient  track  of 
T-rails  on  metal  tie  plates.  In  England,  how- 
ever, the  erroneous  idea  very  generally  prevails 
that  a  T-rail  track  is  in  itself  unsafe,  and  this 
has  even  led  to  the  introduction  of  double-head 
rails  for  colonial  railways,  involving  much  un- 
necessary expenditure,  which  would  have  been 
better  applied  to  the  construction  of  a  greater 
mileage  of  a  more  suitable  type  of  track.  The 
English  track,  as  built,  is  very  strong  and  sub- 
stantial, but  very  expensive,  and  an  equally  good 
track  can  be  made  and  maintained  at  less  ex- 
pense with  heavy  T-rails.  Mr.  Freund,  of  the 
Eastern  Railway  of  France,  has  made  investiga- 
tions from  which  he  concluded  that  theory  and 
experiment  show  that  a  T-rail  secured  to  oak 
ties  by  screw  spikes  is  as  safe  from  lateral  dis- 
placement as  a  bull-head  rail  in  chairs  or  a  T- 


206      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

rail  with  tie  plates  on  pine  ties.  He  further  con- 
cluded that  the  T-rail  comes  nearer  to  giving  its 
proper  service  than  the  bull-head  rail,  because 
the  life  of  the  latter  is  limited  by  the  wear  of  the 
surfaces  in  contact  with  the  chairs,  and  not  by 
the  wear  of  the  running  surface.  In  most  Euro- 
pean countries,  except  England,  T-rails  are  exten- 
sively used,  but  they  are  very  generally  of  poor 
design  and  very  much  too  light  for  the  traffic, 
and  the  consequent  poor  results  in  service  are 
among  the  reasons  for  the  disfavor  with  which 
the  T-rail  section  is  regarded  for  main  tracks  in 
Europe.  European  engineers  are  not,  as  a  rule, 
well  informed  as  to  modern  American  track,  or 
the  successful  results  of  service  of  good  rails 
under  severe  conditions  of  fast,  heavy  and  con- 
tinual traffic.  In  some  cases  a  narrow-based  T- 
rail  has  been  adopted,  carried  in  cast-iron  chairs, 
very  similar  to  those  for  double-headed  rails,  and 
secured  by  large  wooden  keys,  which  make  an 
objectionable  fastening." 

In  Appendix  J  the  sections  of  rails  used  by 
several  American  and  foreign  roads  are  given; 
these  sections  differ  from  that  adopted  by  the 
American  Society  of  Engineers,  some  very  mate- 
rially. Some  fifty  American  roads,  most  of  them 
western,  have  adopted  the  standard  section  recom- 
mended by  the  American  Society  of  Engineers. 

The  tendency  is  toward  heavier  rails.  In 
speaking  of  this,  and  the  road-bed  on  which  they 
are  used,  Mr.  Tratman  remarks:  "In  regard  to 
the  growing  increase  in  the  use  of  heavy  rails,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that  while  it  is  most  desira- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  207 

ble  to  have  rails  of  ample  weight  for  the  traffic, 
the  rail  is  only  one  part  of  the  track,  and  that 
improvements  in  ballast,  ties,  fastenings,  joints, 
etc.,  are  of  equal  importance  in  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  a  first-class  track.  The  lay- 
ing of  rails  should  also  be  very  carefully  and 
thoroughly  done,  though  this  is  a  point  that  is 
frequently  neglected  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
For  instance,  new  rails  carelessly  laid  on  old  ties 
may  be  given  a  wavy  surface,  or  permanent  set, 
due  to  careless  handling  or  to  uneven  bearing 
surfaces,  which  cannot  afterwards  be  remedied 
and  will  materially  reduce  the  beneficial  results 
intended  to  be  obtained  by  the  new  rails.  With 
an  ordinarily  good  track,  on  which  light  rails  are 
replaced  by  heavier  rails,  the  work  of  mainten- 
ance and  renewals  should  be  very  much  reduced, 
owing  to  the  increased  weight  and  stiffness  of 
the  rails,  which  reduces  the  deflections,  so  that 
the  joints  can  be  kept  in  better  condition.  The 
number  of  ties  should  not  be  reduced  for  heavier 
rails,  as  the  rail  should  not  be  independently 
considered  as  a  bridge  or  girder  resting  upon 
piers.  A  fairly  large  number  of  ties  and  fasten- 
ings greatly  facilitates  the  maintenance  and  ad- 
justment of  surface,  line  and  gauge  to  ensure  an 
easy  riding  track,  more  so  than  when  the  supports 
and  fastenings  are  33  to  36  inches  apart,  as  with 
English  track."  There  have  been  some  trials  of 
rails  longer  than  30  feet,  which  is  the  standard 
length.  Some  roads  are  experimenting  with  60- 
foot  rails  and  others  with  45-foot  rails.  At  this 
date  the  experience  is  not  considered  favorable  to 


208       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

their  adoption,  as  the  expense  of  handling  them 
proves  to  be  greater  per  ton  or  foot  than  for  the 
30  foot  lengths,  beside  which  they  become  bent 
more  easily. 

The  street  railway  companies  have  made  con- 
tinuous rails  by  electric  welding,  and  some  ex- 
periments in  this  line  have  been  made  by  steam 
railroads.  Mr.  Tratman  describes  one  as  follows: 
"  Continuous  rails,  with  the  ends  welded  together 
in  the  track,  are  being  tried  on  street  railways, 
and  some  experiments  have  been  made  on  steam 
railways  with  rails  laid  without  expansion  spacing 
and  spliced  by  riveted  angle  bars.  In  June, 
1889,  Mr.  T.  T.  Gleaves  laid  on  the  Durham  Di- 
vision of  the  Norfolk  &  Western  Railway,  three 
miles  of  the  continuous  'self-surfacing'  track 
patented  in  1886  by  Mr.  P.  Noonan,  a  section 
foreman.  The  rails  were  56-lbs.  per  yard,  laid  on 
ordinary  ties  completely  buried  in  the  earth,  and 
the  spike  heads  were  left  f-inch  clear  above  the 
rail  base,  so  that  the  wave  motion  or  undulation 
of  the  rails  would  not  affect  the  spikes  or  ties. 
As  this  motion  was  in  advance  of  the  wheels, 
there  was  no  battering  of  the  ties,  and  the  mo- 
tion of  a  train  was  said  to  have  been  as  smooth 
and  easy  as  on  heavy  rails  in  stone  ballast.  The 
joints  were  secured  by  splice  bars  with  f-inch 
rivets,  making  the  rails  continuous  and  without 
any  allowance  for  expansion.  At  each  end  of 
the  three-mile  section  were  switch  points  to 
allow  for  the  expansion  of  long  stretches  of  rail, 
and  at  frogs  and  switches  at  stations  of  course 
the  rails  could  move  longitudinally.  The  track 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  209 

was  turfed  over,  and  three-inch  terra  cotta  drain 
tiles  were  inserted  to  carry  the  water  out  beyond 
the  track.  After  being  laid,  the  track  was  not 
lined  or  surfaced  for  eighteen  months,  the  only 
maintenance  expense  being  for  a  watchman,  al- 
though engines  weighing  104,000  Ibs.  were  fre- 
quently run  over  it  at  a  speed  of  fifty  miles  per 
hour.  The  ties  were  found  to  decay  more 
quickly  by  being  buried  in  the  earth  and  becom- 
ing water-logged,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
and  the  track  got  somewhat  out  of  surface,  owing 
mainly  to  the  fact  that  it  was  not  laid  on  a  com- 
pact roadbed,  but  in  wet  clay  cuts  and  on  banks 
that  settled  in  sags.  During  the  same  period  of 
eighteen  months,  there  were  expended  $1,890  in 
labor  for  keeping  the  adjoining  three-mile  sec- 
tions in  fair  condition.  With  such  a  track  on 
good  ballast  some  interesting  results  might  be 
expected." 

The  Illinois  Steel  Company's  standard  specifi- 
cations for  steel  rails  adopted  January  1st,  1897, 
are  as  follows: 

SECTION  1.  The  section  of  the  rail  throughout  its  entire  length 
shall  conform  to  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  Stand- 
ard (  )  pounds  per  yard. 

The  fit  of  the  fishing  or  male  templet  shall  be  perfectly  main- 
tained. When  the  rolls  are  new  the  section  of  the  rail  may  be 
one  sixty-fourth  (6XT)  of  an  inch  low.  As  the  rolling  proceeds,  a 
variation  not  exceeding  one-thirty-second  (^)  of  an  inch  in  ex- 
cess of  height  over  templet  may  be  permitted  in  a  delivery  of 
ten  thousand  (10,000)  tons  of  rails,  after  which  the  rolls  must  be 
reduced  to  standard  height  of  such  sections.  The  standard  of 
measure  to  be  Brown  &  Sharp  United  States  Standard  Steel 
Vernier  Caliper  Rule. 

WEIGHTS. 

SEC.  2.  The  weight  of  the  rail  shall  be  kept  as  near  to  (  ) 
pounds  per  yard  as  is  practical  after  complying  with  Section  Mo. 
1.  The  rails  shall  be  accepted  and  settled  for  according  to  actual 
weights. 

14    Vol.  13 


210        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

LENGTHS. 

SEC.  3.  The  standard  length  of  rail  shall  be  thirty  (30)  feet,  at 
a  temperature  of  seventy  (70)  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Shorter 
rails  having  length  of  twenty-nine  (29)  to  twenty-two  (22)  feet, 
inclusive,  shall  be  accepted  to  the  extent  of  ten  (10)  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  order. 

A  variation  in  length  of  one-fourth  (£)  inch  over  or  under  the 
specified  length  will  be  allowed. 

CAMBERING  AND  STRAIGHTENING. 
SEC.  4.  Care  to  be  taken  in  cambering  the  rails  so  as  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  work  in  the  straightening  press  to  a  minimum. 
The  rails  must  be  straight  in  all  directions  as  to  both  surface  and 
line,  without  twists  or  kinks. 

FINISH. 

SEC.  5.  The  rails  must  be  smooth  on  the  head  and  base,  and 
free  from  all  mechanical  defects  and  flaws,  and  must  be  sawed 
square  at  the  ends;  the  burrs  made  by  the  saws  must  be  carefully 
chipped  and  filed  off,  particularly  under  the  head  and  on  the  top 
of  the  flange,  to  insure  proper  tit  of  the  angle  bars. 

DRILLING. 

SEC.  6.  The  drilling  for  the  bolts  to  be  in  strict  conformity 
with  the  blue  print  attached,  or  the  dimensions  given. 

Holes  imperfectly  drilled  to  be  filed  to  proper  dimensions. 
All  holes  must  be  accurate  in  every  respect. 

BRANDING. 

SEC.  7.  The  section  number,  name  of  maker,  year  and  month, 
to  be  rolled  on  the  side  of  the  web.  The  number  of  the  heat  to 
be  stamped  in  the  side  of  the  web. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 
SEC.  8.    The  chemical  composition  of  standard  rails  under 

seventy  (70)  pounds  per  yard  to  be  as  follows: 

Carbon 37  to    .45 

Phosphorous  not  to  exceed 10 

Sulphur  not  to  exceed 05 

Silicon 07  to    .15 

Manganese , 70  to  1.10 

The  chemical  composition  of  rails  seventy  (70)  pounds  and 

over  per  yard  to  be  as  follows: 

Carbon 45  to    .55 

Phosphorous  not  to  exceed 10 

Sulphur  not  to  exceed 05 

Silicon 10  to    .20 

Manganese 80  to  1.00 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  211 

TEST  INGOTS. 

SEC.  9.  From  each  heat  one  test  ingot  shall  be  cast  2ix2Jx6 
inches  long.  This  to  be  drawn  down  at  one  heat  by  hammer- 
ing to  a  test  piece  three-eighths  (f)  inches  square  by  eighteen (18) 
to  twenty  (20)  inches  long.  The  same  when  cold  to  be  required 
to  bend  to  a  right  angle  without  breaking.  This  bar  must  be 
bent  by  blows  from  a  hammer. 

CUTTING  TO  BLOOMS. 

SEC.  10.  After  cutting  off  or  allowing  for  the  sand  on  the  top 
end  of  the  ingot,  at  least  twelve  (12)  inches  more  of  seemingly 
solid  steel  shall  be  cut  off  that  end  of  the  bloom.  If  after  cutting 
such  length  the  steel  does  not  look  solid,  the  cutting  shall  be  con- 
tinued until  it  does. 

INSPECTION. 

SEC.  11.  The  inspector  representing  the  purchaser  shall  have 
free  entry  to  the  works  of  the  manufacturer  at  all  times  while 
his  contract  is  being  tilled  and  shall  have  all  reasonable  facilities 
afforded  to  satisfy  him  that  the  rails  are  being  made  in  accord- 
ance with  these  specifications. 

The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  daily  the  carbon  determina- 
tions of  each  heat  and  a  complete  chemical  analysis  of  at  least 
one  heat  of  each  day  and  night  turn  in  which  each  element  is  to 
be  determined. 

NO.  2  RAILS. 

SEC.  12.  The  requirements  for  No.  2  rails  shall  be  the  same  as 
for  No.  1,  except  that  they  will  be  accepted  with  a  flaw  in  the 
head  not  exceeding  one-fourth  (J)  inch,  and  a  flaw  in  the  flange 
not  exceeding  one-half  (!)  inch  in  depth. 

No.  2  rails  to  the  extent  of  five  per  cent.  (5£)  of  the  entire 
order  will  be  received. 

The  aim  of  manufacturers  of  rails  is  to  produce 
hardness  to  resist  wear  and  toughness  to  resist 
fracture.  Carbon  gives  the  metal  hardness,  and 
each  individual  designer  has  his  particular  opinion 
as  to  the  exact  amount  of  carbon  to  use  to  pro- 
cure the  best  result.  The  heavier  the  rail  the 
larger  the  per  cent,  of  carbon  which  must  be 
used.  Silicon  makes  the  steel  fluid  and  dense, 
this  producing  solid  ingots  and  reducing  crystalli- 
zation. Sulphur  tends  to  make  the  metal  seamy 
and  phosphorous  makes  it  brittle.  Manganese  is 


212      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

used  for  chemical  purposes.  Not  only  the  opin- 
ion of  the  designer,  but  the  chemical  constituents 
and  their  proportions  in  the  ores  used  together 
with  the  weight  of  rail  to  be  produced,  affect  the 
proportions  of  the  chemical  constituents  of  the 
rail.  The  economical  question  in  the  specifica- 
tions of  steel  rails  has  been  stated  very  clearly  by 
Mr.  Ashbel  Welch,  Chairman  of  the  Rail  Commit- 
tee of  the  American  Society  of  Engineers  as  fol- 
lows: "An  unwise  saving  of  a  dollar  to  the  manu- 
facturer, or  a  little  unfaithfulness  in  the  work- 
man, will  probably  reduce  the  value  of  the  rails 
ten  or  twenty  dollars.  Ten  or  fifteen  per  cent, 
added  to  the  ordinary  work  on  rails  would  double 
their  value.  An  expert  rail  maker  knows  this 
very  well,  but  he  cannot  put  the  $10  extra  work 
on  a  ton  in  order  that  it  may  be  worth  $60  more 
to  the  purchaser,  who  will  not  allow  him  any 
part  of  the  $10  out  of  the  $60  he  makes.  The 
railway  agent  who  purchases  may  also  know  all 
this,  but  he  cannot  follow  his  own  judgment,  for 
he  knows  his  directors  will  say  he  paid  $10  more 
than  the  market  price.  It  is  thus  that  the  inter- 
ests of  stockholders  are  sacrificed." 

The  life  of  steel  rails  cannot  be  determined  by 
the  number  of  years  they  have  been  in  use;  those 
on  one  road  may  have  had,  during  a  given  period, 
two  or  three  times  the  number  of  trains  passing 
over  them  than  those  in  another  road  had.  The 
tonnage  which  has  passed  over  the  rail  is  a  bet- 
ter means  of  comparing  the  relative  value  of  the 
rail  and  its  life.  Mr.  A.  M.  Wellington  states  on 
this  subject:  "The  life  of  first-class  60  to  80- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION'.  213 

pound  steel  rails  was  given  by  Wellington  in  his 
'  Economical  Theory  of  Railway  Location '  (1887) 
as  about  150,000,000  to  200,000,000  tons.  There 
are  from  10  to  15  Ibs.  of  metal,  or  f-inch  to 
f-inch  depth  of  head  available  for  wear,  and  abra- 
sion takes  place  at  the  rate  of  about  1  Ib.  per 
10,000,000  tons,  or  rVinch  per  14,000,000  to 
15,000,000  tons  of  traffic.  The  rate  of  wear  is 
increased  about  75  per  cent,  by  the  use  of  sand  by 
the  locomotives.  The  failure  of  modern  rails,  as  a 
rule,  is  due  more  to  deformation  of  section  at 
and  near  the  joints  than  to  abrasion  proper,  and 
this  deformation  and  crushing  are  largely  due  to 
the  heavily  loaded  driving  wheels,  the  wear  from 
which  is  estimated  at  50  to  75  per  cent,  of  the 
total.  Heavy  freight  engines  may  have  three  or 
four  driving  axle  loads  'of  30,000  to  38,000  Ibs. 
on  a  wheel  base  of  12  to  15  feet.  The  area  of 
contact  between  the  driving  wheels  and  rails  is 
an  oval  about  1  x  f  inch,  or  with  worn  tires  or 
worn  rails  Ixli  inches,  with  an  area  of  1.07 
square  inch.  The  maintenance  of  rails  ought 
not  to  exceed  i  cent  or  1  cent  per  train  mile, 
but  it  is  very  generally  as  much  as  3  cents, 
owing  partly  to  work  on  side  tracks.  About  half 
the  metal  in  the  rail  head  is  available  for  wear, 
but  the  full  depth  of  wear  is  not  obtainable  in 
main  track,  as  the  rails  would  then  be  too  rough 
for  service;  about  i-inch  is  the  limit  of  wear  in 
main  track,  the  rails  being  then  removed  to 
branch  or  side  tracks/' 

In  Appendix  J  the  following  tables  relating  to 
rails  and  fastenings  are  given: 


214      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Table  No.  1 ;  Tons  per  mile  and  feet  of  track 

per  ton,  of  rails  of  different  weight  per  yard. 

Table  No.  2;  Number  of  splice  bars  and  bolts 

for  one  mile  of  single  track. 
Table  No.  3;  Number  of  fastenings  required  to 

a  ton  of  rails  of  different  weight  per  yard. 
Table  No.   4;    Pounds   and   kegs   of  railroad 
spikes  required  for  one  mile  of  track,  given 
for  different  sized  spikes  and  rails  of  differ- 
ent weight. 

Table  No.  5;  Gives  the  weight  per  1,000  for 
standard  track  bolts  of  various  sizes,  and  for 
bolts  with  square  and  hexagon  nuts. 
Table  No.  6;  Gives  the  average  number  of  track 
bolts  of  various  sizes  in  a  keg  of  200  pounds. 
Table  No.  7;  The  amount  of  expansion  of  steel 
rails  and   the   size   of  the   shim   for  each 
change  of  ten  degrees  of  temperature  from 
30  to  130  Fahrenheit. 

Appendix  J  also  gives  the  practice  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway,  in  allowing  for  expan- 
sion; here  the  rule  specifies  that  the  thermome- 
ter must  be  read  in  the  shade,  which  would 
make  the  allowance  for  expansion  greater  than 
if  the  reading  was  taken  in  the  sun  and  is  a  safer 
practice. 

SPIKES. 

There  have  been  numerous  methods  tried  to 
fasten  the  rail  to  the  cross-tie.  Screws  of  differ- 
ent patterns  and  other  devices  have  been  tried, 
but  the  general  practice  is  to  use  the  ordinary 
railroad  spike  shown  in  Fig.  102,  cut  A.  This  is 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


215 


not,  however,  an  altogether  satisfactory  spike,  but 
when  the  first  cost  and  cost  of  maintenance  are 
taken  into  consideration,  it  is  considered  more 
satisfactory  than  anything  yet  produced.  Fig. 
102,  cut  C,  shows  the  way  the  fibre  of  the  wood 
is  damaged  by  driving  an  ordinary  railroad  spike 
into  a  cross-tie.  The  Goldie  spike,  Fig.  102,  cut 
B,  illustrates  a  spike  designed  to  accomplish  all 
that  the  ordinary  railway  spike  does  and  yet  not 
damage  the  fibre  of  the  wood  to  so  great  an  ex- 
tent. 


Cut  A. 


CutB. 

FIG.  102. 


cut  a 


The  holding  power  of  the  spike  depends  on  the 
nature  of  the  tie,  the  conditions  under  which  the 


216        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

spike  is  driven,  and  the  length  of  time  it  has  been 
in  the  track. 

The  force  exerted  by  the  rail  when  a  train 
passes  over  it  tends  to  lift  the  spike  out  of  the 
wood;  this  takes  place  on  a  tangent,  and  is  in- 
dependent of  any  lateral  pressure  produced  by 
the  swaying  motion  of  the  train.  The  holding 
power  of  newly  driven  spikes  has  been  found  by 
experiments  to  vary  from  1,500  pounds  to  7,000 
pounds,  the  latter  being  one  of  those  cases,  prob- 
ably, where  the  conditions  were  more  favorable 
than  exist  in  actual  practice.  In  a  good  oak  or 
pine  tie  the  resistance  of  a  newly  driven  spike 
for  a  75-lb.  rail  would  probably  be  about  3,500 
pounds. 

RAIL    JOINTS    AND    FASTENINGS. 

The  best  method  of  fastening  the  rails  together 
is  a  controversy  not  yet  settled.  There  are  a 
number  of  different  methods  in  use.  With  the 
constantly  increasing  weight  of  engines  the 
method  of  connecting  the  rails  becomes  a  vital 
question. 

The  fish  plate  is  used  only  where  the  traffic  is 
light  and  heavy  locomotives  have  not  yet  been 
introduced.  The  angle  bar  (Fig.  103)  is  a  decided 
improvement  on  the  fish  plate,  and  is  used  by 
roads  having  a  moderately  heavy  traffic;  it  gives 
lateral  stiffness  to  the  joint  and  a  greater  bearing 
surface  on  the  tie.  The  continuous  rail  joint 
(Fig.  104)  gives  a  greater  bearing  on  the  tie  and 
a  support  to  the  base  of  the  rail  in  addition  to 
the  advantages  of  the  angle  bar;  this  form  of  joint 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


217 


FIG.  103. 

Angle  Bars  used  on  a  75-lb.  rail  of  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers'  Standard. 


FIG.  104. 

CONTIMJOUS  RAIL  JOINT. 


218         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

is  used  on  a  number  of  roads  some  of  which  have 
the  heaviest  engines  and  greatest  number  of 
trains  in  this  country.  Figures  105,  106,  and 
107  represent  the  Weber  rail  joint,  the  Truss  rail 
joint  and  the  Common  Sense  rail  joint,  all  de- 


Section 


FIG.  105. 

WEBER  RAIL  JOINT. 


Side  View. 


FIG.  106. 

TRUSS  RAIL  JOINT. 


Section.  Side  View. 

FIG.  107. 

"COMMON  SENSE"  RAIL  JOINT. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


219 


220      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

signed  to  accomplish  the  same  object  as  the  con- 
tinuous rail  joint.  They  are  used  by  roads  having 
heavy  traffic.  Fig.  108  gives  a  view  of  a  joint 
adopted  by  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern  Railway 
Company  to  secure  the  advantages  claimed  for 
the  continuous  rail  joint  without  having  to  dis- 
card the  angle  bars;  the  objectionable  feature 
with  this  fastening  is  that  the  upward  wave  mo- 
tion has  no  greater  resistance  at  the  joint  than 
with  the  angle  bar  alone;  the  plate  assists  in 
preventing  the  joint  becoming  low  and  adds 
lateral  stiffness  when  the  spikes  are  well  driven. 

There  are  two  functions  to  be  performed  by 
rail  joints.  One  is  to  resist  the  rapid  blows  from 
the  wheels  of  the  engines  and  cars  of  fast  pas- 
senger trains,  and  the  other  the  slower  blows  from 
freight  trains.  The  weight  on  the  driving  wheels 
of  the  new  passenger  locomotives  of  the  high 
speed  type  is  less  than  the  new  style  of  locomo- 
tives for  freight.  The  latest  style  of  freight  loco- 
motives for  the  Illinois  Central  Railway,  for  in- 
stance, will  have  a  weight  on  each  driver  of 
24,000  pounds,  while  the  new  high  speed  pas- 
senger locomotives  for  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southern  Railway  will  have  a  weight  on  each 
driver  of  22,000  pounds.  A  60,000  pound  capa- 
city car  fully  loaded  will  have  from  11,000  to 
1 2,000  pounds  weight  per  wheel.  In  the  case  of  a 
tonnage  train  consisting  of  a  twelve  wheel  engine 
and  one  hundred  loaded  cars  (as  on  the  Illinois 
Central  Railway)  passing  over  a  rail  joint,  there 
will  be  four  blows  of  24,000  pounds  made  by  the 
engine  and  260  blows  of  from  11,000  to  12,000 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  221 

pounds  made  by  the  wheels  of  the  freight  cars. 
When  this  is  considered  the  importance  of  a 
good  rail  joint  becomes  apparent. 

The  length  of  rail  joints  varies  from  48  inches 
with  six  bolts  to  24  inches  with  four  bolts.  The 
spacing  of  the  ties  under  the  rail  joints  is  not 
uniform;  some  roads  place  the  joint  between  the 
ties,  others  place  a  tie  directly  under  the  joint; 
theoretically  the  former  will  permit  the  rail  to 
respond  to  the  wave  action  more  fully  than  the 
latter,  and  those  advocating  the  first  style  of 
spacing  the  ties  claim  it  makes  an  easier  riding 
track  on  account  of  the  wave  motion  of  the  rail 
not  being  so  greatly  interfered  with.  The  ques- 
tion of  even*  and  brokenf  rail  joints  appears 
from  the  practice  to  tend  to  a  decision  in  favor 
of  even  joints  on  tangents  and  broken  joints  on 
curves. 

Track  bolts  are  made  to  a  standard  size;  some 
roads,  however,  have  their  own  design.  In  Ap- 
pendix J,  Table  No.  5  gives  the  weight  per  1,000 
bolts  with  square  and  hexagon  nuts.  Table  No. 
6  gives  the  sizes  used  for  rails  of  different  weight, 
and  the  number  in  a  keg  of  200  pounds.  Fig.  109 
illustrates  the  styles  of  track  bolts  used. 

The  constant  vibration  at  rail  joints  when 
trains  are  passing  over  them,  causes  the  nuts  to 
turn  and  the  bolts  to  become  loose;  this  prevents 


*  When  both  rails  in  a  track  are  laid  so  that  the  joints  are 
directly  opposite  each  other,  the  track  is  said  to  be  laid  with 
"even"  joints. 

f  When  the  joint  in  one  rail  is  laid  opposite  the  center  of  the 
other  rail,  the  track  is  said  to  be  laid  with  "broken"  joints. 


222 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


-Length"  » 


Square  Nut. 


.Hexagonal  Nut. 

FIG.  109. 

TRACK  BOLTS. 

the  joint  fastening  from  doing  the  work  for 
which  it  was  designed.  To  overcome  this,  vari- 
ous styles  of  nut-locks  have  been  used;  in  a  gen- 
eral way  they  can  be  placed  in  four  classes: 

First — The  use  of  washers  partially  made  of 
rubber  or  papier  mache. 

Second — Metal  washers  with  a  spring  action 
which  are  designed  to  keep  the  nut  pressed  tight 
against  the  threads  of  the  screw  on  the  bolt. 
(Fig.  110  represents  the  "  Verona"  nut-lock, 
which  is  of  this  type.) 


FIG.  110. 

STYLES  OF  "VERONA"  NUT  LOCKS. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


223 


Third — An  elastic  nut  designed 
to  clasp  the  bolt  and  hold  this  nut 
in  position  by  the  increased  fric- 
tion between  the  threads  on  the 
nut  and  bolt.  (Fig.  Ill  represents 
the  "National,"  which  is  of  this 
class.) 

Fourth — A  nut  with  an  elongated  base  forming 
a  spring  to  keep  the  nut  pressed  tight  against  the 
threads  on  the  bolt.  (Fig.  112  represents  the 


FIG.  112. 

JOINT  SPRING  NUT  LOCK. 

joint  spring  nut  of  this  class.)  Loose  nuts  not 
only  mean  loose  and  low  joints,  but  wear  on  the 
angle  bars  and  rails  and  broken  joint  bolts,  and 
hence  are  to  be  obviated. 

RAIL    BRACES. 

To  keep  the  track  to  gauge,  rail  braces   are 
used  on  curves,  and,  if  soft  wood  ties  are  used, 


224       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


they  can  be  used  to  advantage  on  tangents. 
They  should  always  be  used  for  the  guard  rails 
and  lead  rails  of  turnouts  or  switches.  They 
should  be  well  designed  for  their  work,  or  the 
outer  edge  of  the  rail  will  cut  into  the  tie,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  113.  Two  designs  of  forged  steel 
braces  for  rails  are  shown  in  Fig.  114.  The  tie 


FIG.  113. 

Shows  how  a  rail-brace  will  fail  to  support  the  rail  where  it  cuts  into  the 
'tie,  or  the  rail  Drace  is  not  properly  designed. 


FIG.  114. 

FORGED  STEEL  RAIL  BRACES. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  225 

plate  when  used  reduces  to  some  extent  the  ne- 
cessity for  rail  braces  by  giving  a  hard  surface 
into  which  the  edge  of  the  base  of  the  rail  will 
not  cut  when  a  lateral  strain  is  exerted  by  the 
train;  it  also  assists  in  holding  the  track  to  gauge 
by  bringing  the  resistance  of  the  spikes  on  both 
sides  of  the  rail  to  oppose  a  lateral  movement  of 
the  rail. 

SWITCHES. 

In  the  selection  of  switches  there  are  three 
'styles  to  choose  from,  the  stub  switch,  the  split 
switch  and  switches  of  special  design  or  patents, 
varying  from  the  first  two.  The  stub  switch 
consists  of  two  movable  rails  connected  by  rods 
to  hold  them  to  gauge  and  cause  both  rails  to  be 
moved  parallel  when  thrown  by  the  lever; 
the  ends  of  these  rails  rest  on  a  head  block  or 
chair.  The  main  line  rails  and  the  rails  leading 
to  the  side  track  are  held  firmly  by  the  head 
block  or  chair,  Fig.  115  represents  this  style  of 
switch.  The  split  switch  is  known  as  the  old 
English  Point  Switch,  which  has  been  in  use  in. 


Fra.  115. 

STUB  SWITCH. 

Showing  head  blocks  and  ground  throw  for  moving  switch  rail* 
15    Vol.  13 


226       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

England  since  1830  and  is  now  coming  into  gen- 
eral use  in  the  United  States.  The  Lorenz 
Switch  and  the  Clarke-Jeffrey  Switch  are  split 
switches.  Fig.  116  illustrates  this  style.  The 


FIG.  116. 

SPLIT  SWITCH. 
With  Pony  Switch  Stand.— Suitable  for  yards. 

third  class  of  switches  is  designed  for  special 
purposes;  are  protected  by  patents  and  they 
mostly  aim  to  give  a  continuous  rail  for  the  main 
line.  MacPherson's  Improved  Safety  Switch  and 
Frog  is  devised  to  lift  the  train  over  the  rail  of 
the  main  line  without  the  use  of  a  frog  when 
being  switched  on  to  a  siding.  This  switch  is  in 
use  on  some  of  the  great  railroad  systems.  The 
Wharton  Switch  is  designed  to  leave  the  main 
line  rails  unbroken  at  the  switch  stand,  but  a 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  227 

frog  is  used  where  the  inside  rail  of  the  side 
track  crosses  the  main  line  rail.  It  has  been  in 
use  for  a  number  of  years  and  is  well  known. 
The  Duggan  Switch  is  designed  to  accomplish 
the  same  purpose  as  the  Wharton  Switch,  by 
having  the  switch  rail  work  in  a  vertical  instead 
of  a  horizontal  plane. 

The  principal  objection  to  the  stub  switch  is 
that  the  pounding  of  the  ends  of  the  rails  at  the 
head  block  by  the  passing  wheels  causes  the  rails 
to  bind  at  the  head  block  when  the  expansion 
becotnes  great,  and  thus  brings  about  the  derail- 
ment of  trains.  Their  use  should  be  confined  to 
side  tracks,  but  they  are  not  to  be  recommended 
for  use  even  there. 

Frogs  can  be  placed  in  three  general  classes: 
rigid,  spring  rail  and  swing  rail.  The  manufact- 
urers of  frogs  and  switches  make  about  four 
styles  of  rigid  frogs.  Fig.  120  illustrates  a  filled 


FIG.  120. 

RIGID  FILLED  FROG. 

frog.  These  frogs  are  made  in  two  styles;  in  one 
of  them  the  metal  between  the  rails  is  in  two 
pieces,  and  the  other  two  pieces  where  they  come 
together  at  the  point  of  the  frog  are  welded  to- 
gether, thus  making  a  stiffer  frog  and  giving 
more  support  to  the  point.  Fig.  121  represents 
a  chuck  filled  frog  which  is  lighter  than  the  filled 


228       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


SECTION  CO 


FIG.  121. 

RIGID  CHUCK  FILLED  FROG. 

frog  and  suitable  for  yards  or  a  road  with  light 
traffic.     Fig.  122  represents  a  clamped  frog,  the 


FIG.  122. 

RIGID  STEEL  CLAMP  FROG. 

clamps  being  made  of  steel.  This  is  sometimes 
called  a  yoked  frog.  Fig.  123  represents  a  frog 
riveted  to  a  plate  I  to  f  inches  thick,  the  rivets 
being  countersunk  on  the  under  side  of  the  plate 
to  give  a  flat  bearing  on  the  ties.  In  addition  to 
the  styles  of  rigid  frogs  mentioned,  some  roads 
have  styles  of  their  own,  differing  somewhat  in 
detail,  and  the  various  makers  also  differ  in  the 
details  of  manufacture  and  style.  Eigid  frogs 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


229 


SCCTGN  A-B. 


FIG.  123. 


SCC TON   C-D. 


RIGID  PLATE  RIVETED  FROG. 


should  not  be  used  in  main  track  of  roads  doing 
a  large  business;  they  may,  however,  be  used  on 
branches  and  in  yards  to  advantage  to  reduce  the 
expense  of  construction. 

Spring  rail  frogs  have  been  called  into  use  to 
prevent  the  pounding  at  the  frog  and  secure  a 
smooth  riding  main  track;  the  spring  rail  frog  is 
considered  to  have  overcome  the  weak  point  in 
the  track  caused  by  a  frog  of  the  rigid  type.  Fig. 


FIG.  124. 

SPRING  RAIL  FROG  WITH  ANCHOR  BLOCK. 

124  represents  one  style  of  a  spring  rail  frog,  the 
block  at  A  B  is  so  combined  with  the  track  rails 


230      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

and  rails  in  the  frog  that  it  forms  a  frame  to 
prevent  the  loose  spring  rail  from  creeping;  the 
spring  rail  is  channeled  to  prevent  worn  wheels 
from  striking  it.  Fig  125  represents  the  "Eureka" 


FIG.  125. 


•EUREKA"  SPRING  RAIL  FROG. 


Spring  Rail  Frog.  All  four  ends  are  spliced  sol- 
idly together  as  in  a  rigid  frog.  The  hinge  rail 
is  attached  to  the  main  rail  by  a  bolt  hinge  (see 
section  IJ);  this  allows  the  rail  to  move  freely 
and  prevents  its  creeping;  it  iy  attached  to  the 
movable  part  of  the  running  rail  by  strong  bolts 
passing  through  both  rails  and  a  wrought  iron 
filling  (see  section  E  F).  This  makes  this  mov- 
able part  strong  throughout.  Manufacturers 
have  a  number  of  other  styles  of  spring  rail 
frogs,  and  some  roads  have  patterns  of  their  own. 
Spring  rail  frogs  and  movable  points  are  being 
used  in  place  of  frogs  to  secure  a  smooth  riding 
track.  Fig.  126  represents  a  movable  point  cross- 
ing, which  is  used  in  place  of  a  frog  by  connect- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  231 


FIG.  126. 

MOVABLE  POINT  CROSSING. 

ing  the  levers  at  the  movable  point  with  the 
switch  stand.  The  Coughlin  switch  rail  frog  is 
designed  to  leave  the  main  line  track  unbroken 
at  the  frog,  there  being  no  guard  rail  or  frog 
required  for  the  main  line.  The  principle  of  this 
spring  rail  frog  is  in  use  on  the  Lehigh  Valley 
Railway  and  Western  Maryland  Railway.  It 
can  be  used  with  the  split  switch  or  Wharton 
points.  The  spring  rail  frog  used  with  the 
McPherson  improved  safety  switch  accomplishes 
the  same  object  that  the  Coughlin  switch  rail 
frog  does,  except  that  a  guard  rail  is  required 
on  the  main  line  track. 

On  account  of  the  varying  angles  at  which 
roads  cross  each  other,  crossing  frogs  have  to  be 
especially  made  in  each  instance.  They  are  made 
of  steel  rails  cut  to  length  and  shape,  and  fitted 


232       BUILDING  ; 


REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.   129. 

CROSSING  FROGS.    ANGLES  60°  TO  90'. 

and  strongly  bolted  together.  Fig.  129  represents 
one  type  of  crossing  frog;  the  rails  butt  against 
each  other  and  are  solid  filled  throughout,  and 


FIG.  130. 

CROSSING  FROGS.    ANGLES  45°  TO  60° , 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


233 


securely  clamped  with  angle  bars  having  six  bolts 
through  them;  the  corners  are  supported  by 
heavy  bottom  plates.  In  Fig.  130  the  crossing 
differs  from  the  preceding  one,  in  that  the  rails 
at  the  obtuse  angles  are  solid  instead  of  .being 
butts. 


FIG.  131. 

CROSSING  FROGS  WITH  EXTRA  HEAVY  ANGLE  IRONS. 

Fig.  131  represents  a  crossing  where  the  angle 
irons  are  very  heavy  and  have  eight  bolts;  bot- 
tom plates  extend  the  length  of  the  crossing  or 
can  be  put  under  the  corners  only  as  desired. 
Fig.  132  is  the  same  crossing  shown  in  Fig.  129, 
only  modified  for  a  street  railroad.  By  making 
the  flangeway  on  the  street  railroad  as  narrow  as 
possible,  the  life  of  the  crossing  is  increased. 
Fig.  133  represents  another  style  of  crossing  for 
a  steam  and  street  railroad,  this  is  known  as  a 
jump  crossing,  the  rail  of  the  steam  railroad  not 


234       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.   132. 

CROSSING  FROGS  FOR  STEAM  AND  STREET  RAILROADS. 

being  grooved  for  the  flanges  of  the  wheels  of  the 
street  cars. 


FIG.  133. 

JUMP  CROSSING  FROGS  FOR  STEAM  AND  STREET  RAILROADS. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


235 


Switch  stands  are  so  arranged  that  they  throw 
the  switch  and  display  a  signal  at  one  opera- 
tion; the  signal  is  arranged  to  indicate  a  clear 
track  on  the  main  line  or  show  the  train  crew 
that  the  switch  is  open  to  enter  the  siding.  With 
all  split  and  safety  switches  where  the  train  can 
trail  through  and  open  the  switch,  an  automatic 
or  safety  switch  stand  should  be  used  to  prevent 
either  the  points  of  the  switch  or  the  switch  rod 
being  damaged.  Figs.  134  and  135  illustrate  a 


FIG.  134. 

•RAMAPO"  SAFETY  SWITCH  STAND,  AS  IT  APPEARS  WHEN  HALF 
THROWN  BY  HAND. 


236       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  135. 

"RAMAPO"  SAFETY  SWITCH  STAND  AS  IT  APPEARS  WHEN 
HALF  THROWN  BY  WHEELS  PASSING  THROUGH  THE  SWITCH. 

safety  switch  made  by  the  Ramapo  Iron  Works. 
This  firm  have  recently  added  an  adjustable  crank 
to  their  safety  switch  stand;  it  assures  the  switch 
stand  of  being  able  always  to  fit  the  throw  of  the 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  231 

switch,  and  to  take  up  any  lost  motion  that  may 
accumulate  from  wear  and  avoid  the  necessity  of 
adjustable  head  rods,  or  of  shimming  out  the  rod 
to  keep  the  gauge.  There  is  an  endless  variety 
of  switch  stands,  and  the  types  only  will  be  given 
here.  Fig.  136  represents  a  switch  stand  for  a 


FIG.  136. 

THREE-THROW  SWITCH  STAND. 


threfe-throw  switch  which  can  be  used  on  the 
main  line  or  in  a  yard  where  there  is  room  for  a 
high  switch  stand.  In  a  large  yard  it  is  better  to 
use  low  switch  stands,  as  high  ones  are  liable  to 


238       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  137. 

AUTOMATIC  PARALLEL  GROUND-THROW  SWITCH  STAND. 


FIG.  138. 

LOW  PONY  SWITCH  STAND. 


FIG.  139. 


LOW  PONY  SWITCH  STAND 
WITH  SAFETY  BOTTOM  CAP. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


239 


prevent  the  signals  on  other  switch  stands  from 
being  seen.  Figs.  137  to  140  illustrate  such  stands. 


FIG.  140. 

GROUND-THROW  SWITCH  STAND  WITH  WEIGHTED  LEVER. 

Some  of  the  various  designs  for  signals  or  targets 
on  switch  stands  are  given  in  Fig.  141,  and 
Fig.  142  illustrates  a  method  of  elevating  the 
signal  or  target  at  a  dangerous  point. 


FIG.  141. 

DESIGNS   FOR   TARGETS   Oil    SIGNALS  TO  BE  USED  ON  SWITCH 

STANDS. 


FIG.  142. 


TARGET  TRIPOD  FOR  SWITCH  STANDS. 
240 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  24, 


FIG.  143. 

«'HALEY"  SEMI-STEEL  BUMPING  POST. 
16    Vol.  13 


242       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 
BUMPING    POSTS. 

There  are  several  designs  of  bumping  posts, 
the  latest  are  of  metal.  Fig.  143  illustrates  the 
Haley  post  which  is  made  of  semi-steel,  and  the 
spring  is  made  of  coil  spring  steel.  The  impact 
is  received  on  a  plunger  and  the  blow  taken  up 
by  two  double  coil  springs,  thus  reducing  the 
shock  on  rolling  stock  to  a  minimum.  The 
anchorage  under  >the  rails  shown  in  the  cut  can 
in  some  cases  be  omitted.  The  Haskell  bumping 
post  is  made  of  steel  rails  and  cast  steel.  The 
main  or  base  rails  form  support  for  diverging 
braces,  and  it  can  be  securely  anchored.  The 
Ellis  bumping  post,  Fig.  145,  is  a  wooden  one, 


FIG.  145. 

"ELLIS"  BUMPING  POST. 

which  has  been  in  use  for  about  ten  years  on  a 
number  of  roads. 

BRIDGES. 

The  selection  of  bridges  must  be  largely  left 
to  specialists  and  each  stream  crossed  will  have 
to  be  considered  separately;  one  stream  must  be 
crossed  with  the  grade  line  high  above  flood 
water;  here  a  deck  bridge  can  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage, thus  reducing  the  cost  of  piers.  (See 
Figs.  149,  151  and  1550)  At  another  crossing 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


243 


FIG.  146. 

THROUGH  PLATE  GIRDER  BRIDGE. 


FIG.  147. 

PERSPECTIVE  VIEW  OF  THROUGH  PLATE  GIRDER  BRIDGE. 


FIG.  148. 

THROUGH  PRATT  TRUSS. 

A  B  is  the  lower  chord,  to  which  the  bridge  floor  is  attached. 

C  D  is  the  upper  chord. 

A  C  and  B  D  are  the  end  posts. 

C  E  F  G  and  all  such  verticals  are  called  intermediate  posts  or  verticals 
and  are  known  as  vertical  members. 

C  F  E  G  and  all  such  diagonals  are  called  tie-braces  or  tension  braces 
when  the  strain  is  a  tension  or  pull  and  a  tiestrut  or  strut-tie  when  the  strain 
is  a  compressive  one  or  a  push — in  either  case  they  are  known  as  oblique 
members. 


244      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  grade  line  is  so  low  that  a  through  bridge  can 
only  be  used.  (See  Pigs.  148  and  150.)  Again 
the  nature  of  the  stream  may  prevent  false  work 
from  being  used  in  the  erection  of  all  or  part  of 
a  bridge  and  resort  will  have  to  be  made  to  a 
cantilever  style.  (See  Fig.  165.)  The  stream 
may  be  navigable  and  the  channels  change  at 
different  stages  of  the  river,  necessitating  a  high 
bridge  or  two  or  more  draw  spans.  (See  Fig. 
160.)  The  width  of  the  stream  and  the  amount 
of  shipping  using  the  stream  may  be  such  that  a 
biscular  bridge  must  be  resorted  to.  (See  Fig. 
163.) 

Some  of  the  points  which  must  be  considered 
in  designing  a  bridge  are:  The  relation  between 
the  length  and  the  height  of  the  truss,  so  that 
the  metal  will  be  economically  used  in  the  chords 
and  braces.  The  width  of  the  pannel  must  be 
so  proportioned,  that  unnecessary  expense  will 
not  be  incurred  for  connections  for  the  floor 
system  and  lateral  bracing;  no  rule  can,  how- 
ever, be  laid  down  for  this;  it  is  necessary  for 
the  designer  to  study  each  peculiar  case.  The 
lateral  diagonal  and  portal  bracing  require  care- 
ful attention,  also  the  floor  system.  The  decision 
as  to  whether  the  bridge  is  to  be  pin  connected 
or  riveted  connections  depends  on  conditions; 
more  rapid  erection  can  be  accomplished  with 
pin  connections;  at  busy  terminal  points  or  near 
yards  where  a  number  of  trains  pass  over  bridges 
and  there  is  danger  of  derailment,  a  lattice  riv- 
eted bridge  can  be  used  to  advantage;  with  this 
style  one  of  the  members  may  be  disabled  with- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


245 


FIG.  149. 

DECK  PRATT  TRUSS. 

A  B  is  the  lower  chord. 

C  D  is  the  upper  chord  to  which,  the  bridge  floor  is  attached. 

A  C  and  B  D  are  the  end  posts. 

E  F,  G  H,  etc.,  are  vertical  members. 

C  F,  E  H,  F  G,  etc.,  are  oblique  members. 

In  the  Pratt  Truss  the  aim  is  to  place  the  oblique  members  at  an  angle 
of  45°  that  being  the  most  economical  angle;  but  sometimes  the  height  of  the 
truss  E  F  is  greater  than  the  length  of  the  panel  F  H  and  this  feature  has  to 
be  waived  to  secure  economy  in  other  directions. 


FIG.  150. 

THROUGH  WARREN  TRUSS. 

A  B  is  the  lower  chord,  to  which  the  bridge  floor  is  attached 

C  D  is  the  upper  chord. 

A  C  and  B  D  are  the  end  posts. 

C  E,  E  F,  F  G,  etc.,  are  oblique  members. 

The  Warren  truss  has  no  vertical  members.  The  principle  of  this  truss 
is  a  combination  of  equilateral  triangles  which  geometrical  figure  is  the 
stiffest  form  of  framing;  however,  there  are  cases  when  the  length  of  the 
panels  A  E,  E  G,  etc.,  and  the  height  of  truss  or  vertical  distance  between 
the  top  and  bottom  chords  are  such  that  another  form  of  triangle  has  to  be 
adopted;  in  such  cases  the  designer  tries  to  make  the  angle  E  A  C  and  A  E  C 
as  near  45°  as  possible. 


FIG.  151. 

DECK  WARREN  TRUSS. 

A  B  is  the  lower  chord. 

C  D  is  the  upper  chord  to  which  the  bridge  floor  is  attached 

A  C  and  B  D  are  the  end  posts. 

A  E,  E  F,  F  G,  G  H,  etc.,  are  the  oblique  members. 


246       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

out  stopping  traffic  over  the  bridges.  (See  Figs. 
154  and  155.)  The  forms  of  truss  used  in  modern 
practice  are  as  follows:  Plate  girder  is  used  for 
short  spans;  under  special  conditions  it  can  be 
used  for  spans  75  to  100  feet  long,  however,  it  is 
used  mostly  for  spans  of  50  feet  or  less.  Figs. 
146  and  147  illustrate  a  plate  girder  bridge.  For 
longer  span  than  can  be  economically  built  with 
a  plate  girder,  a  Pratt  or  a  Warren  truss  of  simple 
type  would  be  used  (See  Figs.  148  to  151.) 
These  trusses  may  be  used  up  to  150  feet  span, 
as  the  span  increases  modifications  of  these 
trusses  are  made  to  afford  points  for  supporting 
the  floor  system  as  shown  by  Figs.  152  to  157. 
When  the  span  becomes  what  is  styled  a  long 
span,  reaching  say  over  300  or  400  feet,  further 
modifications  are  found  to  give  economical  con- 
struction; these  modifications  are  shown  by  Figs. 
158  to  160.  The  525  foot  span  erected  at  Hen- 
derson, Kentucky,  in  1885  was  a  truss  similar  to 
that  illustrated  by  Fig.  158. 

The  following  bridges  were  built  with  a  truss 
similar  to  that  represented  by  Figs.  158  and  159. 

Havre  de  Grace,    Maryland,         in  1886,    span  515  feet. 
Ceredo,  W.  Virginia,      "  1893,       "    521     " 

Covington,  Kentucky,  "  1888,       "    550    " 

The  truss  used  for  the  bridge  at  Memphis,  Tenn., 
erected  in  1892,  was  similar  to  that  shown  by 
Fig.  160.  The  channel  span  was  a  cantilever 
having  a  span  of  791  feet  and  the  two  spans  west 
of  the  channel  were  each  621  feet. 

The  cantilever,  arch  and  bowstring  bridges  are 
merely   modifications   of   the  trusses  described; 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


247 


FIG.  152. 

WHIfPLE  TRUSS  OR  DOUBLE  INTERSECTION  PRATT. 

The  height  required  for  the  clearance  of  a  train  is  about  18  ft.  above  the 
rail,  and  in  the  preceding  trusses  (Figs.  148  to  151)  the  panels  are  made  to  ap- 
proach as  near  as  possible  to  this  distance.  As  the  length  of  the  span  is  in- 
creased, the  height  of  the  truss  must  be  increased,  and  to  place  the  oblique 
members  at  or  near  an  angle  of  45°  in  a  Pratt  truss  or  60°  in  a  Warren  truss, 
the  length  of  the  panel  must  be  increased.  Modifications  must  now  be  made 
of  the  simple  trusses  to  afford  intermediate  points  to  support  the  floor  system. 
The  Whipple  truss  is  a  modification  of  the  Pratt  truss  made  for  this  purpose; 
A  B  C  D  represents  a  panel  of  a  Pratt  Truss;  an  extra  vertical  E  P  and  extra 
obliques  D  E  and  E  G  are  added  to  afford  support  to  the  point  E  to  support 
the  floor  system. 


FIG.  153. 

MODIFIED  FORM  OF  WARREN  TRUSS. 

As  the  length  of  the  Warren  truss  is  increased  and  the  height  of  the  truss 
also  increased,  making  the  points  A  and  B  of  the  triangle  ABC  too  far 
apart  to  support  the  floor  system,  a  vertical  C  D  is  added  to  support  the 
floor  at  the  point  D. 


FIG.  154. 

SINGLE  LATTICE  GIRDER— MODIFIED  FORM  OF  WARREN  TRUSS. 

This  is  another  method  of  accomplishing  what  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  153, 
and  in  addition  stiffens  the  upper  chord;  this  is  two  Warren  trusses  A  B  C  D 
F  G  H  and  A'  B'  C'  D'  F'  G'  H'  placed  together;  the  latter  one  affords  points 
B'  D'  G'  for  supporting  the  floor  system  and  points  C'  and  F'  for  supporting 
or  stiffening  the  upper  chord. 


248       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  cantilever  is  merely  two  spans  placed 
with  say  their  centers  on  piers,  the  shore  ends 
anchored  and  the  space  between  the  two  spans 
over  the  stream  or  canyon  bridged  by  a  truss 
bridge;  the  cantilever  may  be  a  deck  or  through 
bridge;  Fig.  165  illustrates  a  cantilever  bridge. 
The  arch  bridge  is  merely  a  truss  with  the  lower 
chord  built  in  the  form  of  an  arch.  Tfie  bow- 
string bridge  generally  has  the  top  chord  in  the 
form  of  an  arch,  though  sometimes  the  lower 
chord  is  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  arch;  Fig.  159 
illustrates  a  bowstring  bridge.  The  draw  bridge 
illustrated  by  Fig.  161  represents  the  usual  style 
with  a  center  pier  and  a  channel  on  each  side  of 
the  center  pier.  Where  a  pier  is  not  allowed  to 
be  built  in  the  channel,  bob-tailed  draw  bridges 
having  the  short  span  weighted  are  sometimes 
used,  see  Fig.  162.  There  has  recently  been  in- 
troduced another  style  of  draw  bridge  especially 
suitable  to  be  used  in  a  narrow  channel,  known 
as  the  Scherzer  rolling  lift  bridge;  the  advantages 
over  the  old  styles  are  as  follows:  fa)  No  center 
piers  obstructing  the  channel,  (b)  No  dock 
space  wasted,  (c)  When  opened  it  completely 
closes  the  roadway  and  prevents  a  train  from 
running  into  the  draw.  It  can  be  designed  as  an 
arch  or  cantilever.  Fig.  163  illustrates  this. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  determining 
the  strains  or  loads  the  various  members  of  a 
bridge  are  subjected  to;  one  is  by  platting  the 
loads  or  strains  and  is  called  "Graphical"  statics 
or  "Graphical  Method."  The  other  method  is  a 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


249 


FIG.  155. 

DOUBLE  LATTICE  GIRDER— MODIFIED  FORM  OF  WARREN  TRUSS 

Where  the  length  of  the  truss  becomes  too  great  to  use  the  form  shown 
by  Fig.  154,  this  form  can  be  used  to  support  the  intermediate  points 
B"  B'  C'"  on  the  lower  chord  and  C"  C'  D'"  on  the  upper  chord,  ABODE 
F  G  being  the  simple  Warren  truss  with  three  others— A'  B'  C'  D',  etc. 
A"  B"  C"  D",  etc,  A'"  B"'  C'"  D'",  etc.,  added. 


FIG.  156. 

DECK  BALTIMORE  TRUSS-MODIFIED  FORM  OF  PRATT  TRUSS. 

This  is  Fig.  148  inverted  to  make  a  longer  span  for  a  deck  bridge  than 
Fi?.  149  is  suited  for;  the  floor  system  is  supported  by  the  addition  of 
oblique  members  A  B  anJ  A'  B'  and  vertical  members  A  C  D  E,  etc. 


FIG.  157. 

THROUGH    BALTIMORE     TRUSS— MODIF^D     FORM     OF     PRATT 

TRUSS. 

This  is  another  method  of  accomplishing  what  is  done  by  the  Whipple 
truss  (Fig.  152.)  The  panels  as  A  B  CD  have  but  one  oblique  D  B,  to  this  is 
added  the  oblique  C  E  and  the  vertical  E  F  to  support  the  floor  system  at  F 


250        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

mathematical  one,  based  on  the  laws  of  me- 
chanics. * 

The  various  members  of  a  bridge  must  be  so 
designed  and  connected  that  the  strains  will  be 
in  the  direction  of  their  axis;  all  strains  tending 
to  buckle  or  shear  the  members  must  be  avoided 
in  making  the  design,  and  in  the  erection  care 
must  be  taken  that  all  members  are  placed  as 
designed,  no  shortening  or  lengthening  to  be 
allowed,  as  this  would  tend  to  throw  a  greater 
strain  on  some  members  than  they  were  designed 
to  bear.  The  manufacture  of  steel  has  reached 
such  a  high  standard  that  the  bridge  designer 
knows  definitely  what  duty  it  will  perform,  and 
bridge  designing  has  become  as  near  an  exact 
science  as  can  be  expected  of  anything  produced 
by  human  agency.  The  expansion  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  bridge  is  allowed  for  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  rollers  on  which  one  end  of  the  bridge 
rests,  f  The  piers  to  support  the  bridges  can  be 
masonry  or  iron  cylinders  filled  with  concrete, 
the  selection  of  the  style  to  adopt  depending  on 
local  conditions. 

Wooden  truss  bridges  are  now  seldom  used  on 
new  lines.  Pile  bridges  and  frame  trestles  are 
now  used  to  cheapen  the  cost  where  there  is 
much  filling  required;  they  are,  however,  used 
as  temporary  structures  especially  on  lines  which 
do  much  business;  they  are  replaced  as  the  re- 

*The  details  of  these  two  methods  are  treated  very  fully  by  A. 
J.  DuBois  and  Merriman  and  other  authors,  see  Appendix  K. 

fThe  expansion  of  rails  on  draw  bridges  is  discussed  under 
the  subject  of  track. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


251 


FIG.  158. 

LONG    SPAN   BALTIMORE   TKUSS  —  MODIFICATION   OF   WARREN 

TRUSS. 

This  is  a  method  in  a  long  span  of  supporting  the  floor  at  three  inter- 
mediate points  in  a  panel  as  is  done  by  the  double  lattice  girder  Fig.  155, 
ABCDEFGHIis  the  simple  Warren  truss,oblique  members  J  K  L  M,  etc., 
and  vertical  members  C  M,  N  L,  O  D,  F-  J,  E  K,  etc.,  are  added  to  support 
the  floor  system  at  N  O  P,  etc,  and  to  stiffen  the  upper  chord  at  M  K,  etc. 


FIG.  159. 


LONG  SPAN  BALTIMORE  TRUSS— ALSO  KNOWN  AS  THE  ARCHED 
TRUSS,  THE  BOWSTRING  TRUSS  AND  THE  CAMELBACK  TRUSS. 

As  shown  by  panel  D  D'  and  E  E'  this  is  modified  form  of  a  Pratt  Truss; 
AB,  B  C,  C  D,  D  E,  E  F,  etc.,  D'  E',  E'  F'.  etc.,  are  the  oblique  members  of 
the  Pratt  truss;B  B',  C  C',  D  D',  E  E',  F  F',  are  the  vertical  members  of  the 
Pratt  truss.  To  support  the  floor  system  at  G  H  I,  etc.,  the  oblique  members 
LB'.  MC',  N  C',  and  the  vertical  members  LG,  MH.NI,  O  J,  P  K,  are 
added.  The  pressure  exerted  by  the  top  chord  is  carried  to  the  abutment 
at  A  by  the  members  already  alluded  to,  and  the  segment  of  a  circle  or 
arch' made  by  the  members  A  B,  B  C',  and  C1  D,  of  the  top  chord  which 
act  as  an  arch.  This  form  of  truss  is  suitable  for  long  spans  and  is  econom- 
ical in  the  use  of  metal. 


252        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

sources  of  the  company  permit  by  earth  em- 
bankments, or  in  the  case  of  heavy  fills,  by  steel 
viaducts  and  arched  culverts  with  earth  embank- 
ments. Fig.  166  illustrates  a  pile  trestle,  while 
Fig.  167  illustrates  a  framed  one;  in  each  of  the 
illustrations  short  stringers  reaching  from  the 
center  of  one  bent  to  the  center  of  the  adjoining 
bent  are  used;  where  long  stringers  reaching 
from  the  center  of  one  bent  to  the  center  of  the 
second  bent  are  used  and  are  laid  with  broken 
joints,  a  stiff er  structure  is  secured,  and  the  labor 
in  erecting  is  less  than  with  short  stringers;  the 
short  stringers  have  the  advantage  of  costing 
less  and  require  less  labor  to  replace  them  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  make  renewals.  The 
stringers  are  fastened  to  the  caps  in  Fig.  166  by 
both  passing  through  a  corbel  which  is  drift 
bolted  to  the  cap.  Another  method  is  shown  in 
Fig.  167;  here  the  stringers  rest  directly  on  the 
cap  and  blocks  are  placed  between  them,  the 
stringers  are  bolted  to  the  blocks  and  the  blocks 
are  drift  bolted  to  the  cap. 

The  longitudinal  bracing  shown  in  Fig.  167  is 
dimension  timber  instead  of  planking,  similar  to 
that  used  for  sway  braces  as  shown  in  the  end 
elevation;  this  is  a  departure  made  by  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad  on  one  of  its 
new  lines.  This  method  makes  a  stiff  bracing 
and  is  economical  in  the  use  of  timber.  A  stone 
arched  culvert,  well  designed  and  the  masonry 
properly  laid,  is  a  "permanent  structure"  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term,  and  this  fact  is  more 
generally  appreciated  by  the  Eastern  trunk  lines 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


253 


FIG.  160. 

ANOTHER  MODIFICATION  OF  THE  WARREN  TRUSS  FOR 
LONG  SPANS. 

This  is  type  of  the  truss  used  for  the  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  River  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.    The  lower  chord  is  75  feet  above  high  water. 

The  span  is  621  feet. 

This  is  a  modification  of  the  lattice  girder,  Fig.  154:  to  adapt  it  to  long  span 
bridges,  the  vertical  members,  E  F,  E'  F',  etc.  are  added  to  support  the  floor 
system  at  F  F',  etc.,  and  to  stiffen  the  upper  chord  at  E  E'.  etc;  the  horizon- 
tal brace  H  G  is  added  to  stiffen  the  end  post  A  A'.  With  this  truss  and  the 
arched  truss,  Fig.  159,  the  floor  system  has  to  be  made  stronger  than  for  the 
others,  illustrated,  as  the  distances  apart  of  the  points  of  support  are  greater. 


FIG.  161. 

DULUTH-SUPERIOR  BRIDGE. 

This  draw  bridge  is  made  of  two  trusses  connected  with  a  tower  on  the 
draw  or  center  pier  by  tie  or  tension  braces. 

Four  track  b?idge  (two  steam  railroad  and  two  electric  tracks)  consist- 
ing of  center  draw  span,  485  feet,  and  two  side  spans,  300  feet  each.  Total 
weight,  3,  230  tons. 

Draw  span  operated  by  electrical  power. 

NOTE— The  essential  point  is  to  show  the  draw  span. 


254       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

than  by  the  Western  ones.  The  arched  culvert 
can  be  built  with  one  or  more  spans,  and  all 
streams  except  the  larger  ones  can  be  crossed 
with  them. 

Fig.  168  illustrates  an  arched  culvert.  The 
proper  thickness  to  give  the  arch  will  depend  on 
the  span  S,  the  rise  R,  and  the  amount  of  fill  A. 
The  proper  thickness  B  of  the  side  walls  depends 
on  the  pressure  on  the  arch.  Taking  a  given 
depth  of  fill  as  the  length  of  the  arch  is  decreased 
the  amount  of  masonry  in  the  wing  walls  is  in- 
creased. It  is  the  engineer's  duty  to  determine 
the  length  which  is  the  most  economical,  and 
this  cannot  be  tabulated  except  for  cases  where 
the  ground  is  level  transversely  with  the  line  of 
the  road. 

Cast  iron  pipe  laid  through  an  embankment 
can  be  used  to  convey  a  fair  sized  stream,  or  the 
drainage  of  considerable  area  of  country.  These 
pipes  are  used  from  one  foot  to  three  feet  in 
diameter,  and  several  lines  of  pipe  can  be  kid 
together  when  necessary  to  secure  the  proper 
capacity.  They  are  generally  made  in  twelve- 
foot  lengths,,  but  some  roads  have  the  larger 
sizes  made  in  six-foot  lengths.  Fig.  169  illus- 
trates a  cast-iron  pipe  culvert  and  Fig.  170  illus- 
trates one  with  wing  walls  at  the  inlet  and  outlet. 

Drainage  is  secured  through  low  embankments 
by  open  culverts.  In  such  cases  the  track  can 
be  supported  by  wooden  stringers  or  steel  I 
beams,  Fig.  171  illustrates  an  open  culvert. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


255 


FIG.  162. 


BOB-TAILED  DRAW  BRIDGE— MODIFIED  FORM  OF  WARREN  TRUSS, 
SHORT  SPAN  COUNTER-WEIGHTED. 

This  draw  bridge  also  consists  of  two  trusses  similar  to  Fig.  153,  but  in 
this  case  the  end  posts  are  connected  to  the  tower  and  form  a  part  of  the 
tower. 


FIG.  163. 

SCHERZER  ROLLING  LIFT  BRIDGE. 


FIG.  165. 

CANTILEVER  BRIDGE. 


256        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


W-fsr-tfo^ygJrfe^^^ 

^  ^^^^.^    „    Tirggj 


FIG.  166. 

PILE  TRESTLE  BRIDGE. 


i    ..:.  rzi*,. 


FIG.  167. 

FRAMED  TRESTLE. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


257 


ECTiO*     THROUGH  CD  Stcr/orv  THROUGH  f  f 

FIG.  168. 

STONE  ARCHED  CULVERT. 


FIG.  169. 

CAST  IRQ  -\  PIPE  CULVERT  WITHOUT  WING  WAULS. 
17    Vol.  13 


258        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAIL  WA  YS. 


FIG.  170. 

CAST  IRON  PIPE  CULVERT  WITH  WING  WALLS. 


PLAN 

FIG.  171. 

OPEN  CULVERT. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  259 

WATER    SUPPLIES. 

The  importance  of  the  water  supply  has  been 
discussed  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  selection  of 
pumps,  storage  tanks  and  accessories  will  here  be 
considered.  Windmills,  probably,  are  used  more 
as  a  source  of  power  to  pump  water  for  railroads 
than  all  other  appliances  in  the  United  States; 
the  other  sources  of  power  are  steam  and  gas. 
Wheels  as  large  as  30  feet  in  diameter  are  used 
on  windmills;  their  stroke  is  from  2  to  24  inches 
and  the  plungers  of  the  pumps  are  from  2  to  10 
inches  in  diameter. 

Where  larger  supplies  of  water  are  required 
than  a  windmill  can  be  relied  upon  to  give,  a 
steam  and  gas  or  gasoline  pump  can  be  used. 
The  gas  or  gasoline  pump  has  only  been  recently 
introduced  for  this  purpose.  A  steam  pump  for 
deep  non-flowing  artesian  wells  is  illustrated  by 
Fig.  172.  When  pumping  from  a  well,  pond  or 
stream  by  a  steam  pump,  the  pumping  plant  re- 
quired is  shown  by  Fig.  173.  Fig.  174  represents 
one  of  the  makes  of  gasoline  engines  and  pumps 
designed  for  railroad  water  supply.  A  design 
for  a  pump  house  and  machinery  is  shown  in 
Fig.  175;  this  shows  a  gasoline  engine  belted  to 
a  pump. 

To  supply  locomotives  with  water  large 
amounts  are  required  at  intervals  more  or  less 
frequent  depending  on  the  number  of  trains.  To 
obtain  an  economical  plant,  provision  must  be 
made  for  storing  the  water  as  it  is  pumped  and 
running  the  pumping  plant  steadily;  this  per- 


260      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  172. 

PUMP  FOR  A  DEEP  WELL. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


261 


mits  of  a  small  pumping  plant  being  used,  and 
on  a  branch  or  where  but  few  trains  are  run  one 
man  can  attend  to  pumping  water  for  several 
water  stations.  The  water  tanks  generally  used 
are  16  feet  high  and  24  feet  in  diameter  and  con- 
tain 50,000  gallons.  They  should  be  placed  high 
enough  above  the  rail  to  give  the  water  sufficient 
force  to  fill  the  tender  rapidly  and  not  unneces- 
sarily delay  trains;  some  roads  are  placing  the 
bottom  of  the  tank  twenty  feet  above  the  rail. 
The  tanks  are  made  of  wood  and  are  supported 
on  wooden  or  iron  posts.  Fig.  176  illustrates 


FIG.  173. 


COMMON  FORM  OF  SETTING  UP  A  PUMPING  PLANT  FOR  A 
WATER  STATION. 


262        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  174. 

COMBINED  GASOLINE  ENGINE  AND  PUMP. 

one  supported  by  wooden  posts.  Some,  however, 
are  supported  by  wrought  iron  columns  and  the 
advisability  of  using  steel  in  place  of  wood  for 
constructing  railroad  water  tanks  is  being  dis- 
cussed. 

A  submerged  water  station  consists  of  a  cylin- 
der submerged  in  a  well,  the  cylinder  contains  a 
movable  piston;  the  top  of  the  cylinder  is  con- 
nected with  a  pipe  which  leads  up  to  a  post 
where  it  can  be  coupled  to  the  boiler  of  a  loco- 
motive; when  steam  is  turned  on  the  piston  is 
depressed  and  water  is  forced  out  of  the  cylinder 
through  a  pipe  leading  to  a  stand  pipe.  Mr.  E. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


263 


H.  McHenry,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  Bail  way,  is  the  inventor  and  it  is  in  use 
on  the  Northern  Pacific  and  Duluth,  Missabe  & 
Northern  Kailways. 

Where  the  water  supply  is  procured  from  an 
elevated  point  and  is  piped  to  the  track  or  from 
a  city  water- works,  a  stand  pipe  or  water  column 
is  used;  where  the  road  is  a  double  track  one 
water  column  can  be  placed  between  the  tracks; 


FIG.  175. 

DESIGN  FOR  R.  R.  PUMP  HOUSE  AND  MACHINERY,  USING  A 
GASOLINE  ENGINE. 


264      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  176. 

WATER  TANK,  SUPPORTED  BY  WOODEN  POSTS  OR  BENTS. 

however,  less  delay  to  the  trains  is  secured  by 
using  two,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  construc- 
tion. 

An  automatic  water  column  or  stand  pipe  is 
illustrated  by  Fig.  179.  There  are  several  makes 
on  the  market.  To  secure  satisfactory  service 
the  supply  pipe  should  be  large,  some  roads  using 
a  12  inch  supply  pipe  for  a  10  inch  water  column 
There  must  be  a  sufficient  head  of  water  to  giv< 
the  necessary  force  to  discharge  the  water  rapidl5 
and  not  detain  trains.  The  column  must  have 
a  quick  opening  valve,  be  readily  adapted  to  high 
or  low  pressure,  be  frost  proof,  should  turn  auto- 
matically to  its  position  parallel  with  the  track, 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


265 


FlG.  179. 

AUTOMATIC  STAND  PIPE  OR  WATER  COLUMN. 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


the  valve  should  be  balanced,  it  should  rotate 
easily  and  should  drain  automatically  after  use.* 
To  enable  fast  trains  to  take  water  without 
making  a  stop  "  Track  Tanks"  are  resorted  to; 
they  consist  of  a  shallow  tank  6  to  7  inches  deep 
in  the  clear  and  1200  to  1400  feet  long.  The 
approach  at  each  end  is  sloped  so  that  loose  rods 
on  passing  trains  will  not  catch  and  damage  the 
tank.  The  train  can  take  water  when  moving 
at  a  speed  of  45  miles  per  hour;  this  is  done  by 
lowering  a  scoop  attached  to  the  tender,  which, 
with  the  force  and  velocity  at  which  the  train  is 
moving,  causes  the  water  to  flow  into  the  tender, 
the  tank  is  sloped  up  at  the  ends  to  prevent 
the  scoop  damaging  it.  Track  tanks  are  so 
placed  that  water  can  be  taken  about  every  30 
miles  run  by  the  train.  The  difficulty  met  with 


FIG.  180. 

TRACK  TANK. 

A— Cross  section  of  roadbed.    B— Cross  section  of  tank.    C— Partial  longitu- 
dinal section  of  tank. 


*Table  No.  8,  Appendix  J,  gives  the  capacity  of  single  acting 
and  duplex  pumps  and  the  fittings  required. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  267 

is  to  prevent  their  freezing  and  two  methods 
have  been  adopted  to  overcome  this:  one  is  to 
inject  live  steam  at  points  along  the  line  of  the 
tank  about  40  feet  distant  from  each  other.  The 
other  method  is  to  tap  the  tank  at  the  center  and 
connect  it  with  a  suction  pipe  of  a  pump  and 
pump  the  water  out  of  the  center  of  the  tank, 
pass  it  through  a  heater  and  return  it  at  each 
end  of  the  tank;  the  latter  method  gives  the 
best  results.  Track  tanks  are  in  use  on  a  number 
of  roads.  (See  Fig.  180  which  gives  details.) 

COALING. 

The  method  adopted  for  storing  and  handling 
coal  is  important;  a  badly  arranged  coal  station 
may  require  an  unnecessary  amount  of  labor  in 
handling  the  coal  which  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  would  equal  the  cost  of  the  plant.  There 
are  three  general  methods  in  use.  The  one  used 
the  most  consists  of  a  shed  about  20  feet  wide 
having  the  main  line  on  one  side  and  a  side  track 
for  coal  cars  on  the  other.  The  side  next  to  the 
siding  is  boarded  up  as  high  as  the  sides  of  the 
gondolas  or  coal  cars.  The  length  of  the  shed 
depends  on  the  amount  of  coal  required  to  be 
stored.  At  the  center  of  the  shed  a  platform  is 
erected  having  a  hand  crane  on  it  and  space  for 
the  storage  of  coal  buckets,  which  are  made  of 
iron  and  contain  one-half  ton  of  coal  each.  A 
narrow  gauge  track  is  laid  along  one  side  of  the 
shed,  if  the  shed  is  much  wider  than  20  feet  the 
track  should  be  laid  in  the  center.  The  coal 
buckets  are  placed  on  cars  to  move  them  to  and 


268        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

from  the  crane  to  the  coal  pile;  as  fast  as  they 
are  loaded  they  are  placed  on  the  platform,  which 
is  the  same  height  above  the  rail  as  the  top  of 
the  tender.  Fig  181  shows  a  plan  of  such  a  coal- 


o 


FIG.  181. 

PLAN  OF  A  COALING  STATION  WHERE  BUCKETS  ARE  USED. 

ing  station,  which  is  arranged  to  save  handling 
part  of  the  coal  by  shoveling  it  direct  from  the 
car  into  the  buckets  which  are  placed  on  a  car 
on  the  track  D,  the  buckets  being  hoisted  through 
the  opening  E  on  to  the  platform  C.  The  track 
A  is  used  for  the  car  when  the  buckets  are  loaded 
from  the  coal  stored  in  the  shed,  Another  style 
used  more  extensively  on  lines  having  a  large 
traffic  is  an  elevated  coal  shed  with  pockets  con- 
taining enough  coal  to  coal  up  a  tender;  these 
stations  can  be  arranged  to  unload  the  cars  by 
dumping  from  the  side  or  bottom.  However 
they  are  generally  arranged  for  the  cars  to  be 
unloaded  by  hand  as  a  large  amount  of  the  coal 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


269 


is  handled  Jby  cars  having  no  arrangement  for 
dumping.  These  stations  can  be  placed  between 
the  two  main  line  tracks  of  a  double  track  road; 
the  coal  cars  are  pushed  up  an  incline  track  on  a 
grade  of  5  or  6  per  cent,  to  the  coal  shed  which 
is  on  trestles  or  the  side  of  a  cut.  Fig.  182  re- 


FIG.  182. 

TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  A  CLINTON  COALING  STATION. 

presents  a  section  of  such  a  coaling  station. 
Where  the  traffic  becomes  so  heavy  that  four  or 
more  tracks  are  required,  the  coal  for  locomotives 
is  placed  in  the  tender  of  the  locomotive  from  a 
bridge  spanning  the  tracks.  The  storage  shed  is 
elevated  on  a  trestle  or  the  side  of  a  cut,  a  track 
laid  in  the  coal  shed  passes  over  a  turn-table 
where  a  track  from  the  shed  leads  to  the  bridge 
over  the  main  line  tracks.  Scales  are  placed  at 


270       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

f 

a  point  where  all  coal  taken  from  the  shed  can 
be  weighed.     The  coal  is  loaded  into  cars  of  a 
style  which  can  be  easily  dumped;   under  the 
rails  on  the  bridge  there  is  a  hopper  terminating 
in  a  spout  to  which  a  movable  section  is  attached. 
The  operation  of  loading  a  tender  is  as  follows: 
The  cars  are  kept  loaded  and  are  pushed  from 
the  coal  shed  out  on  the  track  leading  to  the 
bridge,  when  a  train  pulls  up  with  the  tender 
under  a  hopper. the  movable  spout  is  let  down, 
the  coal  cars  are  run  to  the  hopper  and  the  coal 
dumped  and  the  empty  car  pushed  forward,  leav- 
ing room  for  a  second  car  to  discharge  its  load 
into  the  hopper.  In  this  way  the  necessary  number 
of  cars  to  load  the  tender  are  rapidly  unloaded, 
the  movable  spout  is  raised  and  the  train  proceeds. 
Where  the  men  are  trained  for  the  work  the  oper- 
ation is  very  rapid.  The  empty  cars  are  run  back 
into  the  coal  shed,  being  switched  around  those 
which  were  not  unloaded. 

The  skill  of  the  engineer  is  displayed  in  adapt- 
ing the  various  plans  to  the  conditions  of  the 
business  and  the   topography  of  the   country- 
aiming  always  to  reduce  the  cost  of  labor  and  de- 
tention of  trains  to  a  minimum. 

TURNTABLES. 

With  the  increased  weight  and  length  of  en- 
gines, the  styles  of  turntables  in  use  a  few  years 
ago  are  not  able  to  do  the  work  required  of  them 
at  present.  Attention  is  now  being  given  to  im- 
proving the  bearings  at  the  center  to  secure  a 
distribution  of  the  weight  of  engine  and  turn- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


271 


table,  so  that  the  table  can  be  quickly  and  easily 
turned.  Turntables  are  now  made  from  thirty 
to  seventy  feet  in  length,  and  of  both  wrought 
and  cast  iron.  The  two  styles  are  illustrated  by 
Figs.  183  and  184.  Turntable  centers  are  illus- 
trated by  Figs.  184,  185  and  186. 


FIG.  183. 


CAST  IRON  TURNTABLE. 
(Made  by  William  Sellers  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 


272      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


STANDARD  60-FT.  TURNTABLE  NO.  2. 

THC  KINO  BSIDOC  CO.. 


FIG.  1S4. 

WROUGHT  IRON  TURNTABLE. 
(Made  by  the  King  Iron  Bridge  Co.) 


FIG.  185. 

A  TURNTABLE  CENTER  USED  BY  WILLIAM  SELLERS  &  CO. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


273 


FIG.  186. 

SPECIAL,  SIXTEEN  ROLLER  CENTER  FOR  TURNTABLES. 
(Made  by  C.  L.  Strobel.) 

BUILDINGS. 

In  regard  to  the  character  of  the  buildings  to  be 
erected,  the  uncertainty  of  the  development  of  the 
country  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Another  point  to 

18    Vol.  13 


274        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

be  considered  is  the  effect  produced  by  improve- 
ments made  in  the  arrangement  of  the  interiors, 
decoration,  methods  of  lighting,  heating  and  ven- 
tilation,improvements  in  plumbing  and  sewerage; 
in  private  dwellings  the  improvements  along  these 
lines  have  been  such  that  a  period  of  about  ten 
years  makes  a  residence,  once  modern  and  de- 
sirable, old-fashioned  and  undesirable  unless  re- 
modeled.   It  is  altogether  probable  this  improve- 
ment of  design,   etc.,  will  continue  at  a  more 
rapid  rate  in  the  future  than  in  the  past.    While 
railroad  structures  are  probably  not  affected  so 
much  by  this  improvement  as  dwellings,  yet  on 
account  of  competition  it  must  be  considered. 
For  this  reason  it  is  not  the  greatest  economy 
to  erect  buildings  of  a  character  to  last  for  a  long 
period.     It  is  also  difficult  to  design  a  building 
for  the  present,  and  provide  for  extensions  to  be 
built  when  business  increases;  the  increased  busi- 
ness often  takes  place  along  unexpected  lines  and 
is  of  a  character  which  could  not  be  anticipated. 
The  growth  of  the  country  and  the  expansion  of 
business,  while  increasing  the  receipts  of  a  rail- 
road, also  greatly  increase  the  expenditure  made 
to  provide  facilities  to  handle  the  business.  These 
reasons  tend  to  make  careful  railway  managers 
use   buildings  which  the  public  are   protesting 
against  and  which  they  are  not  satisfied  with. 
For  the  larger  buildings  such  as  terminal  depots, 
general  offices,  depots  both  passenger  and  freight 
at  large  cities  or  manufacturing  centers,  hotels 
and    even   offices  and   shops   at   division   head- 
quarters, it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  general 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


275 


276      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

plan  to  be  adopted,  as  the  conditions  are  so  dif- 
ferent. 

Fig.  187  is  a  plan  of  a  frame  depot  suitable  for 
a  new  line  in  a  sparsely  settled  country.  Living 
rooms  are  provided  for  the  agent  and  his  family; 
a  passing  track  but  no  house  track  is  provided 
for. 


FIG.  188. 

SMALL,  FRAME  DEPOT. 

Fig.  188  is  a  plan  of  a  frame  depot  suitable  to 
be  used  where  business  is  light  or  moderate  and 
where  the  agent's  family  can  secure  a  house  away 
from  the  depot  to  live  in. 

Fig.  189  is  a  plan  of  a  frame  depot  for  a 
station  doing  a  fair  business.  A  house  track  is 
provided  for,  which  can  also  be  used  as  a  team 
track  for  carload  freight. 

All  of  these  depots  when  built  in  a  northern 
climate  should  be  set  on  a  stone  foundation  or 
some  other  provision  made  to  keep  the  floors 
warm.  The  floor  of  the  warehouse  should  be  of 
two-inch  plank  and  the  waiting  rooms,  offices  and 
living  rooms  double  floored,  the  top  one  being  of 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


277 


f-.f  ;*  ••  *  • 


IK 
r< 


278        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

hard  maple.  The  doors  in  the  warehouse  should 
be  sliding,  six  feet  wide  and  seven  feet  high;  the 
other  outside  doors  should  be  three  feet  wide  and 
seven  feet  high.  The  inside  doors  can  be 
two  feet  six  inches  wide  and  seven  feet  high. 
No  windows  should  be  placed  in  the  ware- 
house, they  afford  opportunity  for  petty  thieves 
to  ascertain  whether  fruits,  etc.,  are  on  hand 
and  tempt  them  to  pilfer.  A  transom  should 
be  placed  over  the  end  door.  The  waiting 


C£T/W"7* 


7~/?/9C/< 


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1 

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1 
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<0 

COAL 

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FIG.  190. 

OUTBUILDINGS  FOR  SMALL  DEPOTS. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  279 

room  and  office  windows  are  often  made  of 
twelve  lights,  each  eight  by  sixteen  inches,  which 
give  a  good  light  for  clerks  to  work  in;  one  feat- 
ure about  windows  in  a  room  where  clerks  are 
employed  is  to  have  them  well  up  above  the  floor, 
as  the  light  is  required  on  the  books  and  papers 
the  clerks  are  working  on  and  not  on  the  floor. 

Coal  and  oil  should  never  be  kept  in  a  depot. 
Fig.  190  illustrates  out  buildings  for  small  de- 
pots. In  these  provision  is  made  for  storage  of 
coal  and  oil  and  for  filling  lamps. 

When  the  business  becomes  so  large  that  the 
freight  and  passenger  business  cannot  be  accommo- 
dated in  one  station  building,  a  passenger  station 
should  be  erected.  Fig.  191  illustrates  a  brick 
one  which  has  been  found  convenient.  One  roof 
covers  all  the  buildings  and  extends  six  and  one- 
half  feet  beyond  the  outside  walls  all  around, 
thus  affording  shelter  and  leaving  the  platform 
unobstructed  by  posts  or  columns.  The  building 
can  be  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water  from  a  boiler 
in  the  baggage  room.  Where  the  ticket  sales  are 
large  the  ticket  seller  should  have  but  one  ticket 
window  to  attend.  Where  there  is  a  roof  over 
the  platform  there  should  always  be  a  window 
placed  in  the  office  above  the  platform  roof  to 
give  light  for  the  clerks  to  work  during  cloudy 
weather  or  when  a  train  is  standing  in  front  of  the 
depot;  the  importance  of  this  can  only  be  real- 
ized by  those  who  have  to  work  in  such  offices 
where  there  is  no  window  above  the  platform 
roof. 

The  present  practice  is  tending  toward  placing 
station  platforms  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the 


280       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Oft 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION, 


281 


rail  and  making  them  of  vitrified  brick;  however, 
very  good  results  have  been  secured  with  small 
limestone  screenings;  they  pack  hard  and  wear 
well  and  can  be  cheaply  repaired. 

Fig.  192  illustrates    a  stock    pen  used   by   a 


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FIG.  192. 

PLAN  OF  STOCK  YARD. 

NOTE— Where  stock  pens  are  built  on  an  extensive  scale  (as  at  points 
where  large  shipments  are  made),  the  alleyway  should  be  12  feet  wide,  so  that 
teams  can  be  driven  through  with  loads  of  hay,  and  the  feed  be  distributed 
in  the  receiving  or  feeding  pens. 

country  stock  buyer ;  provision  is  made  for  re- 
ceiving pens,  feeding  pens  with  sheds  and  load- 
ing pens ;  the  addition  of  the  second  runway  B 
enables  two  cars  to  be  loaded  at  one  time.  This 
plan  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  volume  of  business; 
where  range  cattle  are  to  be  shipped  it  will  be 
necessary  to  add  a  fence  C.  D.  to  enable  the 
herders  to  get  the  cattle  into  the  pens. 


282       BUILDING  AND  HE  PAIRING  RAILWAYS, 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


283 


Fig.  193  is  a  plan  of  a  roundhouse  and  small 
repair  shops.  The  roundhouse  is  heated  by  indi- 
rect radiation  from  a  coil  of  steam  pipes  placed 
in  the  blower  room;  the  air  is  driven  by  a  blower 
through  the  coils  of  steam  pipes  and  conveyed 
to  the  roundhouse  in  overhead  sheet  iron  pipes 
and  discharged  in  the  pits  under  the  locomotives. 
Provision  is  made  by  a  wrought  iron  pipe  placed 
overhead  and  steam  hose  couplings  to  take  the 
live  steam  from  a  locomotive  which  has  just 
come  in  and  convey  it  to  one  that  is  about  to  go 
out.  The  hydraulic  pit  for  removing  drivers  is 
really  a  part  of  the  machine  shop.  In  the  blower 
room  are  placed  air  compressors  for  handling  the 
sand  and  operating  the  ash  lift.  Fire  hydrants 
H  are  placed  in  each  stall. 


3 

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CENTER.   QF  SIDE 


FIG.  194. 

PLAN  OF  BRICK  STOREHOUSE  FOR  SUPPLIES. 


284       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

1  A  brick  storehouse  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  194. 
The  oil  room  is  paved  with  stone  flagging,  and 
no  wood  work  is  in  the  room  except  the  window 
frames;  some  roads  provide  for  the  storage  of 
oils  in  tanks  set  in  the  ground,  the  oil  being 
pumped  out  as  required. 


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STORE-ROOM       FOK^       fo     5/9/V/> 

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FIG.  195. 

PLAN  OF  STOREHOUSE  FOR  SA.ND. 

A  sand  house  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  195.  The 
dried  sand  is  placed  in  a  hopper  A,  and  carried 
by  a  current  of  air  (which  only  takes  up  the  fine 
sand)  to  an  elevated  tank;  from  this  tank  the 
sand  box  on  the  locomotive  is  filled  by  gravity  in 
the  same  way  that  water  is  supplied  to  a  tender. 

ASH  PITS. 

To  reduce  the  expense  in  loading  ashes  at 
roundhouses,  air  hoist  ash  pits  have  been  intro- 
duced. Fig.  196  illustrates  the  method  of  using 
compressed  air  for  this  purpose.  The  bucket  F 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


285 


FIG.  196. 

ELEVATION  OF  A  BENT  OF  AN  AIR  HOIST  ASH  PIT. 

is  placed  under  the  locomotive  when  the  ashes 
are  drawn;  it  is  then  pushed  down  the  inclined 
track  G  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  196,  and  is 
attached  to  the  piston  rod  B  which  works  in  the 
cylinder  A;  the  attendant  then  turns  a  valve  at 
E,  and  the  compressed  air  causes  the  piston  and 


286      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

piston  rod  B  to  rise  in  the  cylinder  A,  thus  lifting 
the  bucket  F  and  the  attached  truck  level  with  the 
top  of  the  car;  another  valve  at  E  is  then  opened 
and  the  compressed  air  is  admitted  into  the  cyl- 
inder C  drawing  in  the  piston  rod  D,  and  bring- 
ing the  cylinder  A  and  bucket  F  over  the  car. 
The  bucket  is  then  dumped  and  the  ashes  dis- 
charged into  the  car.  The  attendant  then  re- 
verses the  air  in  cylinder  C,  and  the  cylinder  A 
and  bucket  F  are  brought  back  to  the  original 
position;  by  reversing  the  air  in  cylinder  A  the 
bucket  F  is  lowered  on  to  track  G  and  can  then 
be  run  under  the  track  supported  by  the  cast 
iron  yokes  H  where  it  is  in  position  to  be  filled 
again.  A  number  of  these  bents  can  be  placed 
together,  and  the  operation  can  be  carried  on 
continuously.  By  this  method  one  man  can  do 
the  work  heretofore  requiring  a  gang  of  men, 
their  number  depending  on  the  number  of  loco- 
motives handled.  Where  the  ashes  are  handled 
without  an  air  hoist,  the  track  is  lowered,  so  that 
the  journals  of  the  car  wheels  are  on  a  level  with 
the  bottom  of  the  ash  pit  to  afford  easy  shoveling. 

PAVEMENT  OF  TEAM  TRACKS  IN  FREIGHT  YARDS. 

The  paving  to  be  used  at  team  tracks  in  freight 
yards  is  quite  an  item  of  expense.  The  cheapest 
pavement  is  broken  stone,  having  the  large  size 
in  the  bottom  and  the  small  size  on  top,  covering 
the  latter  with  a  layer  of  screenings  or  fine 
gravel;  no  rolling  is  required,  the  traffic  can 
make  the  road.  The  greater  part  of  the  cost  of 
street  improvements  in  cities  is  caused  by  the 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  287 

impatience  of  the  public  to  have  a  perfect  sur- 
face to  the  macadam  at  once;  the  same  condi- 
tions can  be  secured  later  by  allowing  the  traffic 
to  do  the  work  performed  by  the  steam  roller. 
Brick  pavement  is  cheaper  than  granite,  and 
where  the  soil  is  thoroughly  compacted  and  is 
sandy  no  concrete  base  is  required,  two  courses 
of  brick  on  sand  will  answer;  under  other  con- 
ditions six  inches  of  concrete  and  one  course  of 
brick  should  be  used.  Where  good  hard  burnt 
bricks  cannot  be  secured  and  a  first-class  pave- 
ment must  be  laid  granite  or  trap  blocks  should 
be  used. 

SIGNALS.* 

The  method  of  signaling  to  adopt  will  depend 
on  the  amount  of  traffic  and  number  of  trains. 
A  light  business  can  be  handled  by  signals  dis- 
played at  telegraph  offices  indicating  clear  track 
or  a  stop  required  for  train  orders;  such  signals 
are  operated  by  hand  by  the  operator  from  the 
office.  Fig.  198  represents  a  style  of  this  kind. 

Where  there  are  a  number  of  fast  trains  some 
automatic  system  should  be  resorted  to;  in  this 
case  the  power  to  operate  the  signals  is  obtained 
from  electric  batteries  and  the  circuits  are  opened 
and  closed  by  the  passing  trains.  Fig.  199  illus- 
trates the  signal  used — a  white  disc  indicates  the 
track  is  clear  to  the  next  signal  or  block,  a  red 
one  indicates  the  train  has  not  yet  reached  the 
next  signal  or  block.  Fig.  200  shows  the  lever 

*The  subject  of  signaling  is  fully  treated  in  the  volume, 
"Train  Service." 


288      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  198. 


FIG.  199. 


TRAIN  SIGNAL,  OPERATED  BY 
STATION  AGENT. 


AUTOMATIC  ELECTRIC 
SIGNAL. 


operated  by  the  engine  to  open  and  close  the 
electric  circuit.  Another  method  used  to  ac- 
complish the  same  purpose  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 
201.  By  this  method  the  operator  displays  a 
danger  signal  after  the  train  has  passed  his 
tower  and  leaves  it  at  danger  until  he  is  notified 
by  the  operator  at  the  next  tower  that  the  train 
has  passed,  when  he  changes  it  for  clear  track. 
The  first  method  costs  more  to  install  but  is 
safer  and  less  expensive  to  operate.  Both  meth- 
ods are  called  the  Block  System.  At  crossings, 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


289 


FIG.  200. 


LEVER  OPERATED  BY  ENGINE 

TO   OPEN   AND   CLOSE 

ELECTRIC  CIRCUIT. 


FIG.  201. 

BLOCK  SIGNAL  OPERATED 
BY  TELEGRAPH  OPERATOR. 


yards  and  terminal  points  interlocking  plants 
are  used,  the  principle  applied  here  being  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  the  switches  are  thrown  by 
levers  placed  in  a  tower  and  are  operated  by 
hand;  the  mechanism  is  so  arranged  that 
switches,  where  any  two  or  more  opened  at  the 
same  time  might  lead  to  a  collision  or  derail  a 
train,  are  locked  so  only  one  can  be  opened, 
and  to  open  a  second  one  of  the  set  the  first 
must  be  closed.  The  signals  for  clear  track  or 

19    Vol.  13 


290       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


danger  are  operated  at  the  same  time  the  switch 
is  thrown.  Fig.  141  illustrates  some  of  the  sig- 
nals used  on  switch  stands  to  indicate  in  the  day 
time  clear  track  or  danger;  at  night  lanterns  are 
placed  on  the  switch  stands  displaying  a  red 
light  for  danger  and  a  green  light  for  clear  track; 
it  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  white  light  for  clear 
track,  as  the  white  light  in  a  lantern  may  be 
taken  for  the  signal  on  a  switch  stand.  The  dif- 
ficulty with  a  switch  light  is  to  get  one  which 


FIG.  202. 

SWITCH  LAMP  UPPER 
DRAUGHT. 


FIG.  203. 


SWITCH  LAMP  LOWER 
DRAUGHT. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


291 


will  not  blow  out  under  all  conditions,  often  a 
lantern  which  will  not  remain  lighted  on  the 
signal  at  a  telegraph  office  will  give  satisfaction 
on  a  switch  stand.  The  manufacturers  make 
them  with  a  down  draught  and  an  up  draught. 
Figs.  202  and  203  represent  these  styles.  The 
character  of  lamps  used  on  a  semaphore  with  the 
block  system  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  204;  in  this 


FIG.  204. 

SEMAPHORE  SIGNAL  LAMP— UPPER  DRAUGHT. 

case  the  light  displayed  by  the  lantern  is  white 
and  the  colors  red  and  green  are  produced  by 
colored  lenses  attached  to  the  semaphore  Fig.  201. 

FENCES. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  barbed  wire  fence 
was  the  principal  one  used  to  enclose  the  right  of 


292       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  205. 

BARBED  WIRE  FENCE. 


way — Fig.  205  represents  this  style  of  fence. 
The  barbed  wire  fence  was  followed  by  the 
woven  wire  fence,  the  McMullen,  Lamb  and 
Page  being  of  this  class.  Fig.  206  represents  the 


FIG.  206. 

PAGE  WOVEN  WIRE  FENCE. 


n 


FIG.  207. 

JONES'  WIRE  FENCE. 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  293 

Page  Woven  Wire  Fence.  There  is  now  coming 
in  use  for  railways  a  wire  fence  woven  on  the 
Held;  the  Jones  and  Cyclone  being  of  this  type. 
Figs.  207,  208  and  209  illustrate  them.  In 


FIG.  208. 

FLEXIBLE  CLAMP  USED  IN  MAKING  JONES*  WIRE  FENCE. 


FIG.  209. 

CYCLONE  WIRE  FENCE  AND  THE  MACHINE  FOR  MAKING  IT. 


294      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

place  of  cedar  posts,  which  have  been  exclusively 
used  until  recently,  iron  posts  are  now  being  in- 
troduced; the  weak  point  with  an  iron  post  is  its 
rusting  in  the  ground.  To  overcome  this  The 
Indestructible  Post  Co.,  of  Brazil,  Ind.,  are  mak- 
ing terra  cotta  bases,  which  are  set  in  the  post 
holes  and  the  inside  partially  filled  with  a  thin 
grout  of  portland  cement;  in  this  grout  the  iron 
post  is  set,  thus  leaving  only  that  part  of  the 
post  which  can  corrode  above  the  ground  where 
it  can  be  inspected  and  painted.  Fig.  210  repre- 
sents this  style  of  base. 


FIG.  210. 

TERRA  COTTA  BASE   FOR    IRON  POSTS  FOR  FENCES  AND  SIGNS. 
CATTLE    GUARDS. 

To  completely  fence  in  the  right  of  way,  a 
cattle  guard  is  necessary  to  be  placed  where  the 
fence  line  crosses  the  track  at  crossings.  For- 
merly cattle  guards  were  mere  open  pits  and  the 
track  was  carried  over  them  on  beams  of  wood 
with  the  edges  chamfered.  They  were  found  to 
be  expensive  to  maintain  and  have  been  aban- 


STANDARDS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  295 


American  Cattle  Guard. 

FIG.  211. 

CATTLE  GUARD. 


FIG.  212. 

CLIMAX  STOCK  GUARD. 


FIG.  213. 

SHEFFIELD  CATTLE  GUARD. 


296       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

doned,  surface  guards  being  now  used  almost  ex- 
clusively. Figs.  211,  212  and  213  represent 
some  of  the  styles  used. 

TEACK    SCALES. 

The  revenue  of  a  railway  is  based  on  the  rate 
per  100  pounds,  and  it  is  therefore  vital  to  have 
the  weights  correct.  Car  load  freight  is  weighed 
on  track  scales,  and  as  the  traffic  becomes  heavy 
and  the  schedule  faster,  the  delay  caused  by 
weighing  becomes  annoying  to  shippers.  To 
overcome  this  and  permit  rapid  weighing  an  at- 
tachment to  the  track  scales  has  been  made  and 
is  known  as  the  Automatic  Weighing  and  Ee- 
cording  Attachment.  Fig.  214  gives  a  view  of 
one  make  of  track  scales. 


FIG.  214. 

RAILROAD  TRACK  SCALES. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 

When  the  work  of  the  tracklaying  force  with 
the  track  machine,  as  described  in  another  chap- 
ter, is  finished,  the  track  is  far  from  being  com- 
pleted. The  tracklaying  force  has  left  only  the 
main  line  with  such  sidings  as  were  necessary  for 
handling  material  and  the  construction  trains. 
Some  of  these  sidings  were  temporary  and  de- 
signed only  to  meet  the  needs  of  construction 
operations;  such  will  have  to  be  abolished.  An- 
other and  smaller  force  follows  the  tracklaying 
force,  its  mission  being  to  complete  the  track 
(without  the  tracklaying  machine)  by  laying  the 
required  permanent  sidings,  passing  tracks,  house 
tracks,  team  tracks,  private  tracks,  switches, 
cross-overs,  derailing  devices,  guardrails,  frogs, 
etc.,  and,  if  necessary,  widening  the  gauge  and 
making  the  necessary  elevation  of  rails  at  curves, 
so  that  the  track  may  be  in  condition  for  the 
operation  of  trains. 

Passing  tracks  should  be  located  as  decided, 
jointly,  by  the  engineering  or  construction  de- 
partment and  the  operating  department;  they 
should  be  made  somewhat  longer  than  the  largest 
tonnage  train,  or  trains  will  be  delayed  in  pass- 
ing. If  possible  they  should  be  placed  at  sum- 
mits or  where  there  is  enough  length  of  level  or 

(297) 


298       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

light  grade  for  the  locomotive  to  work  to  advant- 
age before  a  heavy  grade  is  reached.  It  is  de- 
sirable on  many  accounts  that  passing  tracks 
should  be  at  stations,  but  if  business  does  not  de- 
mand a  depot  and  an  agent  at  such  points,  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  a  telegraph  operator  to 
be  stationed  thereat  for  the  purpose  of  attending 
to  orders  relative  to  the  movement  of  trains. 

Water  stations  should,  if  possible,  be  placed  at 
passing  tracks,  so  that  through  trains  will  be  de- 
layed as  little  as  possible.  It  is,  however,  a  diffi- 
cult problem  to  secure  at  one  point  favorable 
conditions  for  a  water  station,  proper  grades,  the 
best  location  for  a  station,  and  the  proper  dis- 
tance between  passing  tracks  to  get  the  most 
economical  service  from  locomotives  and  train 
crews. 

House  tracks  are  not  essential  at  small  depots 
where  a  limited  amount  of  business  is  done  and 
where  carload  lots  can  be  handled  on  a  passing 
track  as  is  sometimes  done  on  branches  or  on  a 
track  to  an  elevator  or  warehouse.  Where  the 
business  warrants  a  house  track,  and  trains  are 
not  frequent,  as  on  branches,  the  house  track  can 
be  used  as  a  passing  track.  When,  however,  the 
business  at  a  station  becomes  large,  both  house 
tracks  and  passing  tracks  will  have  to  be  pro- 
vided. 

Team  tracks  are  necessary  when  the  volume  of 
business  is  such  that  a  track  or  tracks  are  re- 
quired exclusively  for  carload  shipments. 

Transfer  platforms  are  necessary  at  points 
where  carload  lots  of  merchandise  are  to  be  dis- 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK.  299 

tributed  into  cars  for  way  or  local  freights;  this 
operation  in  the  conduct  of  traffic,  takes  place 
under  the  following  conditions: 

(1)  At  junction  points  of  two  railway  systems. 
(2)  At  junctions  between  the  main  line  and 
branches.  (3)  Some  lines  at  terminal  points  or 
large  jobbing  centers  load  merchandise  into  the 
cars  promiscuously  for  points  over  say  300  miles 
distant,  and  run  these  cars  out  by  fast  freight. 
This  freight  and  the  freight  picked  up  by  the  local 
freights  is  distributed  at  a  certain  point  into  cars 
for  local  freight  trains  running  beyond  the  300 
mile  point. 

Private  track  or  tracks  to  manufacturing 
plants,  elevators,  warehouses,  etc.,  are  laid  as  the 
business  develops,  and  provision  should  be  made 
in  the  original  plan  of  yards  and  switches  for 
such  growth  as  far  as  possible. 

The  arrangement  of  tracks  as  often  used  at  a 
small  town  is  shown  in  Fig.  216.  Fig.  217  gives 
the  arrangement  of  tracks  at  a  junction  of 
two  systems  where  the  business  is  conducted  by 
a  joint  agent.  An  arrangement  of  tracks  at  a 
point  where  a  branch  connects  with  the  main  line 
is  shown  by  Fig.  218;  in  this  case  it  is  assumed 
that  the  locomotives  on  the  main  line  run  through 
or  are  not  changed  at  this  point.  For  a  point 
where  locomotives  are  changed  on  account  of  the 
length  of  run  or  change  of  grade,  Fig.  219  repre- 
sents the  tracks,  buildings,  etc.,  often  used.  These 
plans  are  only  intended  to  present  the  essential  re- 
quirements; the  arrangement  of  the  tracks  in 
actual  practice  will  depend  on  the  topographical 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS 


FIG.  216. 

PLAN  OF  TRACKS  FOR  A  SMALL  COUNTRY  TOWN. 

A— Main  line  track.  B— Passing  track.  C— House  track.  D— Depot. 
E— Coal  and  oil  house  and  out  buildings.  G— Section  foreman's  tool  house. 
H— Elevator  and  warehouse.  K— Stock  pens.  L— Water  tank. 


FIG.  217. 

PLAN  OF  TRACKS  FOR  A  JUNCTION  OF  TWO  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS. 

A  A'— Mainline  tracks.     B  B'— Passing  tracks.     C— Passenger  Depot. 
D— Freight  Depot.    E — Transfer  platform.    G— Transfer  track.    H— House 
track  also  team  track.    1— Siding  connecting  main  line  tracks. 

conditions  or  lay  of  the  ground,  the  character  and 
volume  of  the  business,  the  local  conditions  as 
to  whether  the  point  is  a  manufacturing,  mining 
or  agricultural  center,  etc. 

The  main  line  should  have  as  few  switches  in 
it  as  possible,  and  to  this  end  three  throw  switches 
are  largely  used;  the  cost  of  yards  can  be  reduced 
and  economy  in  handling  cars  secured  by  the  use 
of  three  throw  and  slip  switches;  however,  where 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


301 


FIG.  218. 


PLAN  OF  TRACKS   FOR   A   JUNCTION  OF   A   BRANCH   WITH  THE 
MAIN  LINE. 

A— Mainline.  B— Branch.  C— Passing  track.  D— House  track .  E— 
Transfer  track.  G  H  and  1— Sidings.  K— Coal  track.  M— Depot.  O— Trans- 
fer platform. ..  P-Coal  shed.  Q— Water  tank.  R.  R  -Stand  Pipes.  S— 
Roundhouse.  T— Elevator  and  warehouse.  V— Stock  pens.  L  andL'— 
Section  foreman's  tool  house. 


FIG.  219. 


PLAN  OF  TRACKS  AND  BUILDINGS  FOR  A  YARD  WHERE  LOCO- 
MOTIVES ARE  CHANGED  AND  WHERE  THE  GRADES 
ALTER,  THUS  CAUSING  A  CHANGE  IN  THE  TON- 
NAGE OF  TRAINS  EACH  SIDE  OF  THE  YARD. 

A— Main  line  track.  B  B' B" -Lead  tracks.  C— Coal  shed  track.  D  and 
B — Coaling  tracks  for  locomotives.  E— Ashpit  track  for  cleaning  fire  boxes 
of  locomotives.  G— Track  for  ashes  cars.  #— Track  to  machine  shop,  store- 
house and  sand  shed.  I— Track  connecting  the  lead  tracks  B  and  B'  so  loco- 
motives can  reach  the  sand  shed  M,  ash  pits  L  and  coal  shed  K  without 
using  the  turntable.  K— Coal  shed.  L— Ash  pit.  M— Sand  tank.  N— Sand 
shed  and  sand  dryer.  O— Machine  shop.  P— Storehouse.  R— Roundhouse. 
S— Sorting  and  storage  tracks.  T— Water  tank. 


-302        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


O 
CM 
CM 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


303 


there  is  no  interlocking  plant  and  they  are  oper- 
ated by  a  switchman,  an  error  on  his  part  when 
not  observed  by  the  engineer  will  result  in  de- 
railing the  engine,  if  nothing  worse.  In  Fig.  219, 


FIG.  221. 

VIEW  OF  A  THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH. 

by  adding  a  third  lead  track  B,  and  using  slip 
switches,  cars  can  be  taken  from  the  center  of 
the  storage  tracks  to  the  main  line  or  from  one 
storage  track  to  another.  Fig.  220  illustrates  the 
construction  of  a  combination  slip  switch  cross- 
ing. A  view  of  a  three  throw  split  switch  is 
given  by  Fig.  221  and  Fig.  222  shows  the  con- 
struction at  the  switch  points. 

In  laying  out  sidetracks  and  yards,  the  correct 
location  of  the  frogs  and  rails  from  the  headblocks 
to  the  frogs  and  from  the  frogs  to  the  sidings  is  a 
mathematical  problem,  though  it  is  often  done  by 


304      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


DUUUUDUUUU 


BOTTOM  CONNECTION 


SIDE  CONNECTION 


FIG.  222. 

ARRANGEMENT  OP  THE  SWITCH  POINTS  FOR  A  THREE  THROW 
SPLIT  SWITCH. 

the  section  foreman's  eye,  often  to  the  injury  of 
the  rails  and  rolling  stock.  * 

Often  in  practice  the  frog  angle  and  switch 
point  of  a  split  switch  and  the  rail  thrown  and 
frog  angle  of  a  stub  switch  are  taken  as  part  of 
the  curve  of  the  rail  from  the  headblock  to  the 
frog.  This  is  not  mathematically  correct,  especi- 
ally with  the  angle  of  the  frog.  The  Elliot  Frog 
&  Switch  Company  have  given  dimensions  in  de- 
tail for  laying  out  switches  where  the  switch 
point  and  frog  angle  are  taken  as  tangent  to  the 
curve  of  the  rail  from  the  headblock  to  the  frog; 
Figs.  223  to  230  are  single  throw  split  switches 

*The  authors  on  railway  location  and  problems  connected 
with  laying  out  curves,  etc.,  give  the  mathematical  demonstra- 
tions of  side  track  work.  See  Appendix  K. 


TRACK. 


305 


r  • 


FIG.  223. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  6;  RIGID  FROG  6  FEET  LONG. 


FIG.  224. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  7;  RIGID  FROG  7  FEET  LONG. 


PIG.  225. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  7;  RIGID  FROG  12  FEET  LONG. 
2O    Vol.  13 


306         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

and  rigid  frogs,  while  Figs.  231  to  234  are  for  the 
same  style  of  switch  but  with  a  spring  rail  frog. 
Plans  with  details  for  the  location  of  the  crotch 
or  center  frogs  and  their  number  for  three  throw 
split  switches  are  given  in  Figs.  235  to  242. 

A  number  ten  frog  is  probably  more  often  used 
in  the  main  line  than  any  other,  for  the  reason 
that  a  very  good  (though  not  a  mathematically 
correct)  switch  can  be  obtained  by  using  two 
thirty  foot  rails  between  the  switch  point  and 
the  frog,  and  thus  avoiding  cutting  rails.  In 
Appendix  J,  Table  No.  9,  is  given  a  list  of  switch 
ties  for  single  throw  split  switches,  using  frog 
Nos.  4  to  11  inclusive.  Table  No.  10,  Appendix 
J,  gives  a  list  of  switch  ties  for  three  throw  split 
switches  using  frogs,  Nos.  6  to  11  inclusive.  Stub 
switches  are  used  to  some  extent  at  present  on 
branches  and  in  yards.  The  names  of  the  parts  of 
a  stub  switch  are  given  in  Fig.  243  and  in  Appen- 
dix J,  Table  No.  11,  is  given  the  data  to  lay  out 
a  single  and  a  three  throw  switch  for  a  standard 
gauge.  Table  No.  12,  Appendix  J,  gives  the  data 
for  laying  out  a  single  and  three  throw  switch  for 
a  narrow  (three  foot)  gauge.  A  bill  of  switch  ties 
for  standard  gauge  single  throw  stub  switches  is 
given  in  Table  No.  13,  Appendix  J,  while  Table 
No.  14  gives  a  bill  of  switch  ties  for  a  narrow 
(three  foot)  gauge,  single  throw  stub  switch.  The 
tables  and  data  so  far  given  are  for  switches  in  a 
straight  track.  Where  the  main  line  is  curved, 
special  calculations  are  required  for  each  case, 
and  the  solutions  of  such  problems  are  given  in 
the  work  previously  referred  to. 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


307 


FIG.  226. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  8;  RIGID  FROG  8  FEET  LONG. 


FIG.  227. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  9;  RIGID  FROG  9  FEET  LONG, 


FIG.  228. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  9;  RIGID  FROG  12  FEET  LONG. 


308       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Crossovers  are  necessary  on  double  track  rail- 
roads to  enable  west  or  north  bound  trains  to 
reach  sidings  on  south  or  east  bound  tracks  and 
vice  versa.  Fig.  244  illustrates  a  crossover  and 
its  use.  Fig.  245  is  a  plan  of  a  crossover.  The 
length  of  the  leads  are  given  in  Figs.  223  to 
230  and  the  distance  D  between  the  points  of  the 
frogs  in  the  main  line  track  is  given  in  Table  15, 
Appendix  J.  A  rule  often  used  by  track  men  to 
calculate  the  distance  between  the  points  of  frogs 
at  crossovers  is  as  follows:  From  the  distance 
between  the  gauge  lines  of  parallel  tracks,  sub- 
tract the  gauge  of  the  track,  multiply  the  re- 
mainder by  the  number  of  the  frog,  and  the 
result  will  be  the  distance  between  the  points  of 
the  frogs.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place  cross- 
overs so  that  trains  will  run  through  the  switches 
as  shown  in  Fig.  244  arid  not  against  the  point  of 
the  switch;  this  reduces  the  liability  of  accidents 
from  derailment.  Derailing  switches  should  be 
placed  on  all  side  tracks  where  the  grade  is  such 
that  cars  are  liable  to  run  onto  the  main  line. 
The  safest  construction  is  to  place  derailing 
switches  at  all  sidings  connected  with  the  main 
line;  high  winds  will  cause  light  box  cars  to 
move  on  a  side  track,  or  careless  switching  when 
a  fast  train  is  due  has  occasioned  freight  cars  to 
run  into  a  switch  and  caused  accidents.  Fig.  246 
illustrates  a  derailing  switch  operated  from  the 
switch  stand  which  operates  the  main  line  switch; 
when  the  switch  is  set  for  the  main  track  the  de- 
railing switch  is  set  to  throw  a  moving  car  off  the 
siding  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  main  line 
track. 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


309 


FIG.  229. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  10;  RIGID  FROG  10  FEET  LONG. 


FIG.  230. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  11;  RIGID  FROG  11  FEET  LONG. 


FIG.  231. 


SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  7;  SPRING  RAIL  FROG  15  FEET 

LONG. 


310        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  232. 

SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH   No.  8%;    SPRING    RAIL   FROG  15 
FEET  LONG. 


!— — -"-^ 

MlOOLt     ORDlNATC    IN    lOTT- 


FIG.  233. 


SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  9;  SPRING  RAIL  FROG  15 
FEET  LONG. 


FIG.  234. 


SINGLE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  10;  SPRING  RAIL  FROG  15 
FEET  LONG. 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


311 


k 


FIG.  235. 


THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  No.  6;  RIGID  FROG  6  FEET 
LONG. 


h- 


FIG.  236. 


THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  WITH   No.  7;  RIGID  FROG  7  FEET 

LONG. 


FIG.  237. 


THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  WITH  No.  7;  RIGID  FROG  12  FEET 

LONG. 


312       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


I  f — 


I*  68'8£'-  — 


FIG.  238. 


THREE  THROW  SPLIT   SWITCH  WITH  No.  8;  RIGID  FROG  8  FEET 

LONG. 


FIG.  239. 


THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH    WITH  No.  9;  RIGID  FROG  9  FEET 

LONG. 


FIG.  240. 

THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  WITH  No.  9;  RIGID  FROG  12  FEET 

LONG. 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


313 


FIG.  241. 

THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  WITH  No.  10;  RIGID  FROG  10  FEET 

LONG. 


FIG.  242. 

THREE  THROW  SPLIT  SWITCH  WITH  No.  11;  RIGID  FROG  11  FEET 

LONG. 


FIG.  243. 

PLAN  OF  A  STUB  SWITCH. 

A—  Switch  rail.  B  — Toe  of  switch  to  point  of  frog.  C=A  +  B  =  Heel 
of  switch  rail  to  point  of  frog.  D=  Toe  of  switch  to  point  of  crotch  frog. 
E  =  Throw  of  switch. 


314       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

There  has  recently  been  introduced  sand  tracks, 
similar  to  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  247  for  check- 
ing the  movement  of  cars  on  side  tracks  and  also 
to  take  the  place  of  bumping  posts.  A  derailing 


FIG.  244. 

PLAN  ILLUSTRATING  THE  USE  OF  A  CROSS  OVER  OR  SWITCH 

CONNECTING  THE  TWO  MAIN  LINE  TRACKS  OP  A  DOUBLE 

TRACK  ROAD.  C  IS  THE  CROSS  OVER  CONNECTING 

TRACKS  A  AND  B  TO  ENABLE  A  TRAIN  ON 

TRACK  A  TO  REACH  SIDING  D. 


FIG.  245. 

PLAN  OF  A  CROSS  OVER. 

switch  used  in  connection  with  an  interlocking 
plant  to  protect  railroad  crossings  is  illustrated 
by  Fig.  248. 

Guard  rails  should  be  placed  at  all  frogs,  both 
at  the  main  line  rail  arid  the  rail  leading  to  the 
siding.  They  should  be  securely  spiked  to  the 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


315 


FIG.  246. 


DERAILING  SWITCH  USED  TO  PREVENT  COLLISION  BETWEEN 

A  TRAIN  ON  THE  MAIN  LINE  AND  CARS  RUNNING  OFF 

A  SIDE  TRACK  ONTO  THE  MAIN  LINE. 

This  switch  is  connected  and  operated  by  the  movement  of  the  Main  Line 
Switch.  The  cut  shows  the  switch  set  for  the  Main  Line  and  the  Derailing 
Switch  set  to  throw  a  car  moving  out  of  the  siding  from  the  track.  When 
the  switch  is  set  for  Siding  the  Derailing  Switch  closes  automatically. 


FIG.  247. 


SAND  TRACK;  USED  TO  CHECK  THE  MOVEMENT  OP  CARS  ON  A 

GRADE  OR  WHEN  PROPELLED  BY  A  HIGH  WIND  FROM  RUN- 

NING OFF  A  SIDING  TO  THE  MAIN  LINE  TRACK. 


___. 

n 

*== 

n 

:TT= 

n 

:== 

n 

•  .  — 

—  — 

n 

-^— 

= 

n 

—~—- 

= 

-...= 

= 

•".:  .T 

x= 

>      .  —  - 

H 

! 

L 

L 

L 

[ 

1 

OCTAI.  Or  MTAO  ROD. 


FIG.  248. 

DERAILING  SWITCH  POINT  USED  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  INTER 
LOCKING  SYSTEM  OF  GUARD  CROSSINGS. 


316      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

tie  and  braced  so  they  cannot  turn  over.  Fig.  249 
illustrates  a  guard  rail  braced  with  rail  braces; 
Figs.  248  to  251  illustrate  methods  of  stiffening 
guard  rails  by  attaching  them  to  the  main  line 
rail. 

In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said  in 
regard  to  crossing  frogs,  it  is  welJ  to  note  here 
that  it  sometimes  occurs  that  two  roads  cross  at 
an  acute  angle;  in  such  cases  the  crossing  can  be 
made  by  using  crossing  frogs  as  shown  in  Fig. 
252.  Crossings  of  this  character  are  liable  to 
occur  at  yards  and  terminal  points.  To  secure 
a  smooth  main  line  track,  movable  center  points 
instead  of  a  rigid  frog  have  been  introduced. 
Fig.  253  illustrates  a  combination  slip  switch 
crossing  with  movable  center  points,  the  switch 
points  and  movable  frog  points  are  operated  to- 
gether. The  motions  are  positive,  the  frog  points 
always  corresponding  with  the  switch  points,  thus 
avoiding  any  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  switch- 
man. This  combination  of  switches  and  frog 
points  is  desirable  where  the  crossing  is  at  an 
angle  of  less  than  ten  degrees. 

The  question  of  widening  the  gauge  on  curves 
has  been  discussed  ever  since  railroads  were  first 
constructed,  and  no  conclusion  has  yet  been  ar- 
rived at.  The  Roadmasters'  Association  made 
enquiries  on  this  subject  in  1897,  and  found  no 
two  railroad  systems  were  using  the  same  width 
of  gauge  for  curves  of  the  same  degree,  and  some 
roads  laid  track  on  both  curves  and  tangents  to 
the  same  gauge.  The  present  practice  of  gaug- 
ing wheels  for  standard  gauge  cars  leaves  a  clear- 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK. 


317 


§ 


CM     fc 

2  I 


318        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ance  of  five-eighths  to  seven-eighths  of  an  men  on 
a  four  feet  eight  and  one-half  ioch  gauge  on  a 
tangent.  In  1898  the  Boadmasters'  Association 
recommended  commencing  to  widen  the  gauge 
on  curves  with  a  seven  degree  curve.  Table 
No.  16,  Appendix  J,  gives  the  amount  recom- 
mended by  this  Association  for  widening  the 
gauge  for  different  degrees  of  curvature. 


FIG.  250. 

GUARD  RAIL  WITH  THE  HOOK  GUARD  RAIL,  CLAMP. 


a__m  fin  CJLFI  ra  O.IDI  -f 


FIG.  251. 

GUARD  RAIL  WITH  THE  SAMPSON  ADJUSTABLE  GUARD  RAIL 
CLAMP. 

Elevating  the  outer  rails  on  curves  is  done  to 
counterbalance  the  centrifugal  force  or  that  force 
which  tends  to  cause  the  train  to  mount  the  rail 
and  proceed  in  a  tangent  or  straight  line.  The 
proper  theoretical  velocity  can  readily  be  cal- 
culated when  the  radius  of  the  curve  and  the 
velocity  of  the  train  are  known  using  the  formula 
E  =  «nL  m  which  E  equals  the  elevation  of  the 
outer  rail,  G  the  gauge  in  feet,  V  the  velocity  of 


219 


320       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  train  in  feet  per  second,  and  R  the  radius  of 
the  curve  in  feet.  In  practice,  however,  the 
problem  is  a  difficult  one  to  solve,  and  with 
mixed  trains  running  on  the  same  track,  prob- 
ably never  will  be.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the 
fact  that  other  conditions  besides  keeping  the 
train  on  the  track  have  to  be  taken  into  account. 
Steel  rails  are  expensive,  and  it  is  also  expensive 
work  to  take  worn  ones  out  of  the  track  and  re- 
place them  with  new  ones.  To  get  the  full  life 
of  the  rails  on  a  curve,  the  wheels  of  the  rolling 
stock  (that  is  the  cars  and  locomotives)  should 
pass  around  a  curve  in  the  same  manner  they  do 
on  a  tangent.  When  the  outer  rail  on  curves  is 
elevated  to  give  safe  and  easy  riding  track  for 
fast  passenger  trains,  the  slower  passenger  trains 
and  freight  trains  are  bearing  heavily  on  the 
inner  rail,  and  wearing  it  out  faster  than  the 
outer  rail.  On  a  single  track  road  the  problem 
is  further  complicated  where  there  is  a  curve  on 
a  grade;  descending  trains  pass  over  the  curve  at 
a  high  speed  while  ascending  ones  pass  over  it 
at  a  low  speed  especially  where  the  grade  is  a 
heavy  one.  Table  No.  17,  Appendix  J,  gives  the 
theoretical  elevation  of  the  outer  rail  on  curves 
of  different  degree  or  radius,  and  for  trains  at 
different  velocity  for  both  standard  and  narrow 
gauge.  In  practice  no  standard  gauge  track 
should  be  given  more  than  6i  inches  eleva- 
tion, and  on  single  track  such  elevation  should  be 
made  as  will  most  nearly  conform  to  all  speeds 
but  favoring  passenger  trains.*  Table  No.  18, 

*Further  information  on  this  subject  will  be  fcund  in  the  first 
article  in  Appendix  J. 


CONSTRUCTING  TRACK.  321 

Appendix  J,  gives  the  ordinates  for  bending  rails 
of  different  lengths  to  curves  of  different  radius 
for  track  and  switch  constructions.  The  chapter 
on  Maintenance  of  Way  will  contain  some  data 
which,  while  properly  being  a  part  of  track  con- 
struction, also  is  a  part  of  the  work  coming 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Roadmaster  and  his 
employes.  There  also  was  discussed  in  the  chap- 
ter on  Standards  some  subjects  belonging  to 
track.  In  Appendix  J  will  be  found  further  de- 
tailed information  as  to  the  minutiae  of  track. 


24  Voi.  13 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

MAINTENANCE    OF    WAY. 

All  the  steps  leading  up  to  the  building  ana 
complete  construction  of  a  railroad  have  now 
been  described,  and  we  may  suppose  that  the 
property  is  performing  its  functions,  and  that 
trains  hauling  passengers  and  freight  are  daily 
passing  over  its  tracks.  But  after  a  railroad 
has  been  completed  in  as  thorough  and  econom- 
ical a  manner  as  the  resources  of  the  man- 
agement will  permit  and  it  is  turned  over  to 
the  operating  department,  experience  shows  that 
over  23  per  cent,  of  all  the  expense  of  operating 
the  road  is  required  for  maintaining  the  track, 
bridges,  culverts',  buildings,  fences,  gates  and 
crossings,  and  over  15  per  cent,  for  maintaining 
the  equipment  in  good  order  so  that  operations 
may  be  continued  with  economy  and  safety.* 

The  problem  of  maintenance  of  track  is  con- 
stantly becoming  more  and  more  difficult  by  rea- 
son of  the  increased  weight  of  rolling  stock  and 
the  heavier  loads  hauled. f 

*  Appendix  G,  Table  1,  gives  a  tabulated  statement  of  the 
weights  of  the  largest  locomotives  in  1880  and  1890.  Passenger 
locomotives  in  the  past  twenty  years  have  increased  65  to  70  per 
cent,  in  weight,  while  freight  locomotives  have  increased  over 
100  per  cent. 

t  Appendices  B,  C,  and  D  give  further  information  on  this 
point. 

(322) 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  323 

This  increase  in  weight  was  started  by  the  dis- 
cussion on  the  relative  merits  of  standard  and 
narrow  gauge  from  1870  to  1883,  and  has  been 
helped  along  by  the  effort  to  cheapen  the  cost  of 
handling  the  freight  traffic  by  increasing  the 
tonnage  hauled  by  a  locomotive  and  train  crew. 

In  1880  it  was  thought  that  12,000  pounds  was 
all  that  could  be  put  on  a  driver  without  crush- 
ing the  rail;  to-day  there  are  several  locomotives 
whose  drivers  support  a  weight  of  over  24,000 
pounds.  To  meet  this  condition,  steel  rails  have 
been  increased  in  weight  from  60  to  100  pounds 
per  yard.  The  effect  of  this  heavy  rail  is  to 
make  it  act  as  a  girder,  thus  throwing  the  weight 
carried  on  a  larger  number  of  ties. 

The  increased  bearing  surface  secured  by  the 
use  of  wide  ties  is  shown  by  the  table  No.  19, 
Appendix  J,  which  shows  that  16  ties  having  an 
eight-inch  face,  or  14  ties  having  a  nine-inch 
face,  have  as  large  a  bearing  surface  on  the  bal- 
last as  18  ties  having  a  seven-inch  face. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  ties 
which  can  be  placed  under  a  thirty-foot  rail, 
leaving  ten  inches  in  the  clear  for  tamping,  and 
also  the  percentage  of  increased  bearing  surface 
for  ties  8,  9,  and  10  inches  wide  over  ties  7  inches 
wide. 

Percentage  of  increased 

Nor  to  a  bearing  surface  on  the  b  1- 

Width  of  tie.  30-f  t.  rail.  last  over  a  tie  7  inches  wide. 

7  inches  21 

8  20  9    per  cent. 

9  "  19  16i 
10       "                             18  22| 


324       LU1LDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

To  support  the  new  class  of  heavy  locomotives 
and  tonnage  trains  with  loaded  cars  weighing 
90,000  to  100,000  pounds,  wider  ties  must  be 
used  on  well  ballasted  and  drained  roadbeds. 
By  increasing  the  thickness  of  the  tie  to  seven 
inches  it  can  be  made  eight  feet  six  inches  long, 
and  thus  secure  additional  bearing  surface;  ties 
nine  and  ten  feet  long  have  been  used  on  earth 
ballast  where  there  are  seasons  of  prolonged 
rainfall. 

In  addition  to  the  destructive  force  exerted  by 
passing  trains,  there  are  other  causes  tending  to 
destroy  the  track,  viz.:  wet  cuts  and  badly 
drained  roadbeds,  creeping  of  the  rails,  heaving 
and  settling  of  the  roadbed  by  freezing  and 
thawing,  natural  decay  of  the  ties  and  corrosion 
of  the  rails  and  fastenings  caused  by  the  ele- 
ments.* 

Organization  of  Force. — The  organization  of 
the  force  in  charge  of  the  important  duty  of 
maintaining  the  track  of  a  railway,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  costs  almost  25  per  cent,  of  the  oper- 

*I  remember  going  over  a  piece  of  road  in  the  eastern  part  01 
Dakota  in  1874  that  had  been  abandoned  for  some  time.  Tht 
train  consisted  of  an  engine  and  two  cars,  and  three  days  were 
required  to  travel  eighty  miles.  The  weeds  and  grass  were 
from  6  inches  to  six  feet  in  height.  Everywhere  the  roadbed 
was  tunneled  with  the  burrows  of  jack  rabbits  and  squirrels. 
The  weeds  and  grass  rendered  the  track  so  slippery  that  it  was 
necessary  for  laborers  to  place  sand  and  gravel  on  the  rails  as  wr 
proceeded.  Water  was  procured  with  the  aid  of  syphons  from 
ponds  along  the  road  and  the  trestles  and  bridges  swayed  under 
the  weight  of  the  train  like  trees  in  a  tempest.  When  eventually 
this  particular  piece  of  track  was  opened  for  business,  it  was 
found  necessary  to  rebuild  it  entirely,  although  the  abandon- 
ment had  only  extended  over  a  period  of  five  years. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  325 

ating  expense,  and  upon  which  force  depends 
\ery  largely  the  financial  success  of  the  railroad, 
has  ngt,  as  a  rule,  received  the  attention  its  im- 
portance demands. 

On  some  systems  the  maintenance  of  way  de- 
department  is  directly  under  the  engineer,  in 
other  cases  directly  under  the  superintendent, 
and  in  other  cases  there  is  a  division  of  author- 
ity. The  roadmasters,  who  are  the  officials  in 
actual  charge  of  the  track,  in  some  cases  report 
direct  or  through  the  engineer  to  the  superin- 
tendent, and  in  other  cases  report  to  an  officer 
who  in  turn  reports  to  the  engineer. 

The  tendency  is  to  place  men  in  charge  of 
maintenance  of  way  who  have  had  a  technical 
training;  but  before  they  can  be  of  any  great 
service  they  must  also  have  received  a  practical 
training.  All  men  who  graduate  from  a  tech- 
nical school  or  college  do  not  possess  that  prac- 
tical turn  of  mind  essential  to  the  successful 
engineer. 

Some  railroad  systems  place  the  young  engi- 
neers in  section  gangs  where  they  can  learn  the 
practical  work  and  are  then  advanced  to  section 
foremen,  supervisors  of  several  gangs  of  section 
men,  and  then  to  roadmasters;  this  method  se- 
cures men  who  have  both  practical  and  scientific 
knowledge  and  who  have  proved  their  adapta- 
bility to  the  work  and  ability  to  manage  men. 
There  are  two  distinct  features  to  be  considered 
in  the  organization  of  the  roadway  department. 
The  first  is  the  execution  of  that  which  is  to  be 
done;  the  next,  the  inspection  of  that  which  has 


326       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

been  done.  Under  some  circumstances,  the 
duties  of  execution  and  inspection  are  combined 
in  one  individual;  in  the  broadest  senser  how- 
ever, there  should  be  no  community  of  interests 
between  the  inspector  and  the  man  who  is  di- 
rectly responsible  for  the  work.  The  man  who 
executes  or  directs  the  execution  of  work  is  nat- 
urally inclined  to  magnify  its  excellence  and  ex- 
cuse its  imperfections,  but  he  who  views  it  with 
the  practiced  eye  of  a  critic,  whose  judgment  is 
not  tempered  with  self-interest,  will  give  an  esti- 
mate of  certain  and  just  value.  Road  inspection 
will  therefore  be  considered  under  a  separate 
heading,  as  a  distinct  system,  instituted  to  meet 
the  increasing  exaction  of  modern  railroading. 

In  the  organization  of  the  roadway  service 
there  should  be  no  division  of  authority  or  re- 
sponsibility; all  orders  should  proceed  from  a 
responsible  head,  and  all  reports  should  ulti 
rnately  reach  his  office  and  be  consolidated  by 
him  for  the  information  of  superior  officers. 
This  head  is  variously  termed  the  roadmaster, 
superintendent  of  roadway,  engineer,  etc.  Un- 
der this  officer  come  the  supervisors,  division 
roadmasters,  or  assistant  engineers,  as  the  case 
may  be;  also  timber  inspectors,  pump  inspec- 
tors, and  frequently  bridge  and  building  inspec- 
tors; then  come  the  gang  foremen,  etc.,  who 
in  turn  employ  their  own  laborers.  Under 
such  an  organization,  with  a  proper  system  of 
rules  and  accounts,  a  road  may  be  extended  to 
almost  unlimited  proportions  by  a  simple  addi- 
tion to  the  number  of  divisions  and  subdivisions, 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAX.  327 

and  an  enlargement  of  the  central  office.  A  di- 
vision roadmaster  or  supervisor  is  rarely  capable 
of  supervising  more  than  one  hundred  miles  of 
single  track  or  fifty  miles  of  double  track  road. 
On  our  more  important  lines,  a  section  of  single 
track  should  not  exceed  six  miles,  and  section- 
houses  should  be  placed  as  near  a  telegraph 
office  or  station  as  possible. 

The  foreman  should  have  the  care  of  track 
and  property  of  the  company  on  his  section,  and 
should  be  held  accountable  for  their  proper  care 
and  maintenance. 

As  far  as  possible  the  roadmaster  should  lay 
out  the  work  for  his  foremen.  Foremen  should 
be  shown  the  value  of  thorough  system,  of  plan- 
ning the  week's  work  ahead  so  as  to  economize 
time  and  to  accomplish  a  little  more  than  the 
proper  week's  allowance.  For  this  reason  it  is 
very  essential  for  the  roadmaster  to  establish  the 
proper  allowance  of  labor,  and  to  issue  a  little  in 
advance  of  requirements  the  necessary  material. 
Foremen  should  not  be  permitted  to  work  por- 
tions of  a  day  at  points  widely  separated,  as  the 
loss  of  time  in  going  from  one  place  to  another 
will  easily  consume  a  large  percentage  of  the 
day's  time.  The  regular  inspection,  which  fore- 
men should  be  required  to  make  at  least  twice  a 
week  over  every  part  of  their  sections,  should  be 
made  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  use  as 
little  time  away  from  their  regular  work  as 
possible. 

The  following  rules  for  the  guidance  of  em- 
ployes in  the  roadway  department  are  in  the 
main  generally  appropriate.* 

*  I  copy  them  substantially  as  I  find  them. 


328       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

General  Rules.  •  —Each  employe  whose  duties 
require  it  must  have  the  book  of  rules  with  him 
while  on  duty. 

Any  employe  who  does  not  clearly  understand 
the  rules  must  ask  an  explanation  of  his  superior 
officer. 

Employes  must  report  violations  of  rules  by 
other  employes  which  endanger  life  or  property, 
or  which  prevent  them  from  discharging  their 
own  duty. 

Employes  while  on  duty  must  refrain  from 
profane  or  violent  language,  personal  altercation, 
and  from  using  intoxicating  drinks. 

Each  employe  is  hereby  warned  that  while  on 
the  tracks  or  grounds  of  the  company,  or  in  work- 
ing with  or  being  in  any  manner  on  or  with  its 
cars,  engines,  machinery  or  tools,  he  must  ex- 
amine, for  his  own  safety,  the  condition  of  all 
machinery,  tools,  tracks,  cars,  engines,  or  what- 
ever he  may  undertake  to  work  on  or  with,  be- 
fore he  makes  use  of  or  exposes  himself  on  or 
with  the  same,  so  as  to  ascertain,  so  far  as  he 
reasonably  can,  their  condition  and  soundness; 
and  he  is  required  promptly  to  report  to  his 
superior  officer  any  defect  in  any  track,  machin- 
ery, tools  or  property  of  said  company  affecting 
the  safety  of  anyone  in  operating  upon  or  with 
the  same. 

Supervisors,  inspectors,  foremen  and  conduc- 
tors must  keep  a  daily  record  of  their  occupation, 
showing  in  detail  the  work  done,  material  used, 
and  the  time  of  each  person  employed  under  their 
immediate  supervision. 

Red  must  not  be  worn  in  a  conspicuous  man- 
ner. 

Supervisors,  conductors,  section  foremen  and 
foremen  of  all  other  gangs,  during  work  hours, 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  329 

must  not  leave  their  respective  division,  train, 
section  or  gang,  without  written  permission  from 
the  roadmaster. 

In  case  of  accident  to  train  or  road,  the  highest 
officer  in  the  roadway  department,  or  the  oldest 
foreman  in  continuous  service  present  at  the 
time  will  have  charge  of  the  work  until  relieved 
by  some  one  higher  in  authority. 

Supervisors  must  pass  over  their  divisions  on 
trains,  and  foremen  over  their  sections  on  hand 
cars,  during  stormy  weather,  and  must  know  that 
all  is  safe  before  allowing  trains  to  pass.  Con- 
ductors must  keep  in  telegraphic  communication 
with  the  roadmaster  and  the  master  of  trains 
during  the  continuance  of  storms,  and  be  pre- 
pared to  move  on  shortest  notice. 

Hand  cars  must  not  be  towed  at  the  rear  of 
trains,  and  must  not  be  on  the  track  after  dark, 
nor  in  foggy  weather  unless  protected  by  proper 
signals  in  front  and  rear. 

Standard  plans  and  specifications  for  the  con- 
struction and  location  of  all  structures  will  be 
furnished  and  officers  and  foremen  must  inform 
themselves  of  such  standards  and  work  entirely 
in  conformity  with  them. 

Trains  must  be  expected  at  all  times. 

Foremen  and  officers  must  provide  themselves 
with  reliable  watches  before  entering  upon  their 
duties,  and  see  that  they  are  always  in  order  and 
conform  to  standard  time. 

When  watchmen  are  left  with  danger  signals, 
they  must  be  supplied  with  tools  and  required  to 
work. 

When  dangerous  places  are  found,  or  while 
work  is  being  done  that  renders  the  road  unsafe 
for  the  passage  of  trains,  the  person  in  charge 


330       BUILDING  AND  RETIRING  RAILWAYS. 

must  attend  to  the  placing  and  maintaining  of 
danger  signals  on  the  engineer's  side  of  track  in 
both  directions.  In  no  case  must  they  be  nearer 
than  fifteen  telegraph  poles,  and  on  a  continuous 
down  grade  in  the  direction  of  the  work  the  sig- 
nal must  be  placed  at  least  twenty  telegraph 
poles  from  the  work.  When  such  points  come 
on  a  curve,  the  signal  must  be  placed  at  the  fur- 
ther end  of  the  curve.  If  either  signal  cannot 
be  clearly  seen  from  the  work  and  from  an  ap- 
proaching train,  a  watchman  must  be  left  with 
it. 

Whenever  signals  of  the  roadway  department 
are  disregarded,  immediate  report  must  be  made 
to  the  roadmaster. 

Slow  boards  must  be  posted  at  a  distance  of 
ten  telegraph  poles  on  each  side  of  the  place 
where  the  speed  is  to  be  reduced. 

When  two  or  more  hand  cars  may  be  following 
each  other  over  the  road,  they  must  maintain  an 
interval  of  at  least  two  telegraph  poles  apart. 

Supervisors  or  Assistant  Roadmasters:  Must 
test  track  levels  once  a  week,  and  see  that  they 
are  used  in  surfacing  track;  must  see  that  fore- 
men are  supplied  with  the  full  number  of  tools 
required;  and  that  they  are  in  proper  order;  must 
carry  with  them  on  their  hand  car  a  standard 
track  gauge,  an  ax,  six  torpedoes,  a  red  and  white 
lantern,  and  a  red  flag;  must  examine  switches, 
frogs  and  turntables  once  a  week,  and  see  that 
they  are  in  proper  order;  must  see  that  turn- 
tables and  car  guards  are  provided  with  proper 
means  to  securely  lock  them;  must  see  that  their 
foremen  are  provided  with  the  proper  forms  for 
making  reports,  and  with  copies  of  all  rules  and 
schedules;  must  pass  over  their  respective  divis- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  331 

ions  at  least  once  a  week  on  a  hand  car,  once  a 
week  on  an  engine,  and  as  often  as  possible  on 
the  rear  of  a  train;  must  see  that  signs  are  placed 
where  required,  and  are  kept  in  proper  order; 
must  see  that  fences  are  kept  in  proper  order. 

Reports  of  the  resignation,  discharge,  removal, 
suspension,  transfer,  death,  injury,  sickness,  or 
marriage  of  any  foreman  must  be  sent  at  once 
to  the  roadmaster. 

Foremen:  Must  be  familiar  with  the  regular 
code  of  signals  and  the  proper  position  and  use  of 
torpedoes;  must  work  when  their  entire  attention 
is  not  required  in  directing  their  men;  must  report 
promptly  in  detail  to  the  supervisor  any  accidents 
to  persons  or  trains;  must  notice  the  signals 
carried  by  passing  engines;  must  examine  every 
switch,  frog  and  guard  rail  on  their  respective 
sections  at  least  three  times  every  week,  and  keep 
them  in  good  order. 

The  length  of  a  section  and  the  number  of  men 
allotted  to  each  gang  should  be  governed  by  local 
conditions,  whether  single  or  double  track  and 
the  volume  of  traffic.  A  section  of  double  track 
should  be  about  four  miles  long,  and  of  single 
track  about  six  miles  long.  On  roads  having  a 
large  traffic,  each  section  gang  should  consist  of 
a  foreman  and  one  and  one-half  men  per  mile 
of  double  track,  with  an  additional  allowance  of 
one  man  for  every  two  miles  of  sidings.  On 
single  track  each  gang  should  consist  of  a  fore- 
man and  one  man  per  mile  of  track,  with  an 
additional  allowance  of  one  man  for  every  two 
miles  of  sidings.  Taking  these  proportions  as  a 
basis,  sections  may  be  varied  in  length  as  locality 
and  circumstances  make  necessary.  Generally 
speaking  no  section,  should  be  so  reduced  in 


332        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

length  that  its  proportionate  allowance  of  force 
would  be  less  than  six  men  and  a  foreman. 
Watchmen  should  be  counted  extra.  All  extra 
work  should  be  calculated  to  be  done  by  a  special 
gang  and  ballast  train;  or  extra  men  should  be 
allowed  section  foremen.  Each  section  should 
have  a  tool  house  large  enough  to  accommodate 
a  hand  car  and  a  full  complement  of  tools. 

Ballasting.  Ballasting  when  done  on  a  large 
scale,  as  is  the  case  when  changing  from  an  earth 
roadbed  to  one  of  gravel,  slag  or  broken  stone,  is 
done  by  special  gangs,  and  when  repairs  to  the 
ballast  are  done  on  a  small  scale  the  work  is  done 
by  the  section  gang. 

Tracks  should  be  laid  alongside  of  a  gravel 
bank  of  sufficient  capacity  to  allow  switching  a 
train  of  empty  cars  alongside  the  steam  shovel, 
while  the  loaded  ones  are  being  taken  out,  the 
object  in  view  being  to  proportion  the  forces  so 
that  all  can  work  steadily  and  have  no  interrup- 
tions caused  by  the  steam  shovel  being  idle  wait- 
ing for  empty  cars,  or  the  gang  placing  the  bal- 
last under  the  ties  being  idle  waiting  for  ballast. 
By  using  a  steam  shovel  to  load  the  cars  with 
gravel,  and  a  ballast  unloader  the  force  on  the 
gravel  train  can  be  reduced  to  a  small  train  crew. 

Wherever  a  change  is  being  made  from  an 
earth  roadbed  to  one  ballasted  with  gravel,  slag 
or  stone,  the  earth  between  and  at  the  ends  of 
the  ties  should  be  cast  out  on  to  the  slopes  of  the 
embankments  and  removed  entirely  from  cuts  and 
placed  where  the  embankments  are  narrow;  the 
aim  should  be  to  secure  p,  roadbed  as  near  the 
standard  section  as  possible  before  the  ballast  is 
put  on. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  333 

There  have  recently  been  introduced  special 
cars  for  handling  ballast.  Thus  the  Rodgers  ballast 
car  dumps  the  ballast  in  the  center  of  the  track, 
the  last  car  in  train  of  ballast  cars  having  a  plow 
for  cleaning  and  flanging  the  track.  The  amount 
of  ballast  to  be  distributed  is  regulated  by  the 
amount  of  opening  given  to  the  doors  of  the  hop- 
per in  the  bottom  of  the  ballast  car  and  the  speed 
of  the  train.  When  a  large  amount  of  ballast  is 
to  be  deposited,  it  is  done  by  running  the  ballast 
train  over  the  track  two  or  more  times. 

Another  car  for  handling  ballast  is  the  Good- 
win Steel  Gravity  Dump  Car.  It  is  dumped  by 
one  man  by  means  of  compressed  air  which 
operates  to  move  the  dumping  attachments  of  all 
the  cars  in  the  train  at  the  same  time.  The  bal- 
last can  be  dumped  all  on  one  side  of  a  rail  or 
both  sides,  or  all  on  the  outside  of  both  rails  or 
all  on  the  inside  of  both  rails. 

When  the  ballast  used  is  broken  slag  or  stone, 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  sufficient  supply 
to  draw  from  before  putting  the  surfacing  gang 
at  work.  It  is  advisable  in  case  of  any  class  of 
feallast  to  have  a  sufficient  quantity  distributed 
along  the  track  before  the  surfacing  gang  is  put 
to  work  in  order  to  guard  against  delays  in 
delivery. 

A  plant  is  required  to  prepare  stone  ballast 
which  should  be  located  at  a  quarry*  storage  bins 
should  be  provided  of  capacity  sufficient  to  load  at 
the  least  a  train  of  cars;  it  is  still  more  economical, 
however,  to  have  the  capacity  of  the  plant  such 
that  when  the  cars  are  put  in  service  they  can  be 
kept  continuously  employed  until  the  work  is 
completed. 


334      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  258. 


SECTIONAL  PERSPECTIVE  VIEW  GATES  STONE  CRUSHER  FOR 

BALLAST. 
REFERENCE  TABLE. 

The  names  of  the  several  parts  designated  by  numbers  in  the  above  illustra- 
tion may  be  found  in  the  following  table: 


10. 
11. 


Bottom  Plate. 
Bottom  Shell. 
Top  Shell. 
Bearing  Cap. 
Oil  Cellar  Cap. 
Spider. 
Hopper. 
Krcontr'e. 
Bevel  \vh  el. 
Wearing  Ring. 
Bevel  Pinion. 


12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
22. 

24. 


Band  Wheel. 
Break  Hub. 
Break  Pin. 
Oil  Bonnet. 
Dust  Ring 
Dust  Cap. 
Head. 
Concaves. 
Chilled  Wearing 

Plates. 
Octagon  Step. 


25. 

26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 

31. 
33. 


Main  Shaft. 
Upper  Ring  Nut. 
Lower  Ring  Nut. 
Steel  Step. 
Lighter  Screw. 
Lighter  Screw, 

Nut. 

Counter  Shaft. 
Oiling  Chain. 


Jam 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  335 

A  large  sized  Gates  stone  crusher  is  illustrated 
by  Fig.  258;  this  is  of  the  rotary  style  which  is 
taking  the  place  of  those  having  a  jaw  worked  by 
a  reciprocating  motion.  The  drawing  gives  the 
details  of  the  crusher  and  Fig.  259  shows  the 


FIG.  259. 

GATES   REVOLVING  SCREEN   FOR  SCREENING  CRUSHED  STONE. 

rotary  screen  used  to  separate  the  crushed  stone 
into  the  various  sizes  desired. 

A  plant  with  storage  bins  and  three  loading 
tracks  is  shown  by  Fig.  260.  To  economically 
operate  this  plant  the  loading  tracks  should  be  on 
a  light  grade  sufficient  to  easily  move  the  loaded 
cars  by  hand;  the  empty  cars  should  be  placed  at 
the  high  end  of  the  siding  and  run  under  the 
storage  bins  by  hand.  After  they  are  loaded  they 
should  be  run  by  hand  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
loading  tracks,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  a  switch 
engine. 

A  portable  railroad  ballast  plant  is  often  used 
where  rubble  stone  can  be  obtained  without 
quarrying  as  is  often  the  case  along  rocky  blufts 


336       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

and  hillsides.  After  the  supply  of  rubble  stone 
has  been  exhausted  at  one  point  the  plant  can 
be  readily  moved  to  another. 


FIG.  260. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF   STONE   CRUSHER,   ELEVATOR  SCREEN  AND 
STORAGE  BINS  FOR  A  RAILROAD  BALLAST  PLANT. 

Placing  the  ballast  under  the  ties  should  be 
done  by  lifting  the  track  six  inches  at  a  time  by 
two  track  jacks,  one  at  each  rail  and  opposite 
each  other.  If  the  lift  is  more  than  six  inches  at 
a  time,  the  joints  and  fastenings  are  liable  to  be 
injured.  Fig.  262  illustrates  a  Jenne  track  jack 
and  Fig.  263  illustrates  the  trip  jack — both  styles 
are  made  with  long,  narrow  bases,  so  they  can  be 
placed  between  the  ties. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


337 


FIG.  262. 


JENNE  TRACK  JACK  FOR  HEAVY  BALLASTING,  SURFACING  AND 
GENERAL  TRACK  REPAIRS. 


FIG.  263. 


.'RIP  JACK  FOR  BALLASTING,  SURFACING  AND  GENERAL  TRACK 

REPAIRS. 
22    Vol.  13 


338       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Tools.  The  following  list  of  tools  for  a  section 
gang  of  six  men  is  made  from  a  list  of  tools  used 
by  roads  in  the  Eastern,  Central  and  Western 
States. 


Name  of  Tools. 


Number 
Required. 


Illustrated  by 
Figure  Nos. 


Adzes 

handles 8 

Axes 1 

"     handles 1 

Auger  for  post  holes 1 

Brooms. : 2 

*Brush  hooks 1 

*  "        "      handles 1 

*Ballast  hammers 4 

forks    6 

*Brace  and  bits 1 

Cars,  hand .    1 

' '     push 1 

Chisels,  track 6 

Claw  bars 3 

Ditch  line  100  feet  long 1 

Drills,  ratchet  or  track  drills 1 

Files 2 

Flags,  red 4 

' '       green 2 

"      white 2 

Grindstone 1 

*Hoes,  grub  or  mattocks 1 

Hatchels  or  hand  axes 1 

*Hammer,  hand,  for  nails. 1 

Lanterns,  red 2 

"         green 2 

"         white 2 

Lining  bars,  wedge  point 4 

Oil  can.. 1 

Oiler 1 

Punches 1 

Pinch  bars i 

Padlock  and  chain 1 

Picks,  earth G 

' '    handles 4 

*  ' '      tamping 6 

"            "        handles 4 

Rakes..  2 


264 
265 

266 
267 
268 

269 
270 

271 
272 
273 
274 

275 

276-277 
278 


279 
280 
281 
282 
283 
283 
283 
284 
285 
286 
287 

288 
289 

290 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


339 


Name  of  Tools. 

Number 
Required. 

Illustrated  by 
Figure  Nos. 

Rail  tongs 

3 

291 

'  '    forks 

2 

292 

Saws  hand             •  .  .  • 

1 

293 

*     '  '      cross  cut                  .         

1 

294 

Scythes         .       .         

4 

295 

'  '        snaths,  

4 

296 

'  '        stones    

2 

*Spirit  level  

1 

297 

*Squaro  tie  .... 

1 

*Spike  puller  

1 

298 

"       mauls. 

4 

299 

"            "      handles. 

4 

*Sledges             .               ...             ...... 

2 

300 

"        handles              .               

2 

Shovels                    

6 

301 

'        scoop    .         ... 

G 

302 

'        long  handled  .... 

1 

303 

*Track  lever  or  lifting  bar  

1 

304 

'       lacks 

2 

262  263 

'       gauges 

2 

305-306 

'       level  board 

1 

307 

*Tamping  bars 

4 

308 

Torpedoes 

12 

309 

Tape  line  50  feet  long 

1 

*Tool  boxes       ,         ...         . 

1 

310 

Wire  stretchers        .  . 

1 

Wrenches,  track  ... 

4 

311 

monkey  

1 

312 

*Wheel  barrows  

3 

313 

\Vater  bucket  . 

1 

"       dipper 

1 

"       keg                         .                  .... 

1 

IpuEhole  plugs  [furnished  as  required 

The  tools  marked  with  an  ^  are  not  required 
by  all  section  gangs;  a  brush  hook  and  grub  hoe 
will  be  needed  in  a  timbered  country  but  not  in 
a  prairie  section  of , the  country;  ballast  or  nap- 
ping hammers  and  sledges  will  be  needed  where 
the  country  is  rocky  and  ballast  is  often  made  of 
the  rocks  found  along  the  right  of  way,  but  will 


340       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


not  be  required  where  the  country  is  barren  of 
stone. 


FIG.  264. 

ADZE. 


FIG.  265. 

CHOPPING  AXE. 


FIG.  266. 


FIG.  267. 


AUGER  FOR  BORING  HOLES  IN 

THE  GROUND  TO  PLACE 

FENCE  POSTS  IN. 


BROOM  FOR  REMOVING  SNOW 

FROM  SWITCHES, 

FROGS,  ETC. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


341 


FIG.  268. 


BRUSH  HOOK  FOR  CUTTING 
DOWN  SMALL  SAPLINGS. 


FIG.   269. 

BALLAST    OR    NAPPING    HAM- 
MER    TO    BREAK      MEDIUM 
SIZED  STONE  TO  PROPER 
SIZE      FOR      BALLAST; 
WEIGHT  ABOUT  FOUR 
POUNDS. 


FIG.  270. 


BALLAST  FORK  FOR  HAND- 
LING SLAG  OR  STONE  BAL- 
LAST, SO  THAT  THE  FINE 
DIRT  WILL  NOT  BE 
SHOVELED  WITH 
BALLAST. 


B. 

FIG.  271. 

BRACE  A  AND  BIT  B  FOR  BORING  HOLES  IN  TIES  WHERE  SPIKES 

HAVE  BEEN  DRAWN  PREPARATORY  TO  PLUGGING 

THE  SPIKE  HOLE. 


342       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  272. 

HAND  CAR  FOR  SECTION  GANG, 


OF  WAY. 


343 


344       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  274. 

TRACK  CHISEL  FOR  CUTTING  RAILS,  ETC. 


I     «. 


j  e 


id 

B. 

FIG.  275. 

CLAW    BARS.      A— HAVING    NO  HEEL.      B-  WITH  A,  HEEL.      USED 
FOR  PULLING  SPIKES  AND  BOLTS. 


FIG.  276. 
PERFECTION  TRACK  DRILL  FOR  DRILLING  BOLT  HOLES  IN 

RAILS.    FEED  AUTOMATIC  OR  HAND  AS  DESIRED. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


345 


FIG.  277. 


Q  AND  C  SELF-FEEDING  RAIL  DRILL.    OVER  OR  UNDER  RAIL 
CLAMPS  USED  AS  PREFERRED. 


FIG.  278. 


HAND    FILE    FOR    SMOOTHING    THE    ENDS   OF    RAILS    BEFORE 
PLACING  THEM  IN  THE  TRACK. 


346        BUILDING  AND  HEPAIPJNCr  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  279. 


HERCULES  GRINDSTONE 
MOUNTED  WITH  TREADLE. 


FiG."280. 

GRUB  HOE.  (A)  FOR  CUTTING  THE 
ROOTS  OF  SMALL  SAPLINGS. 

MATTOCK.  (B)  SOMETIMES  PRE- 
FERRED TO  A  GRUB  HOE. 

PICK  MATTOCK.  (C)  SOMETIMES 
PREFERRED  TO  A  GRUB  HOE. 


FIG.  281. 

HATCHET.     (A)     WITH  A  CLAW  FOR  DRAWING  NAILS. 

(B)    WITH  A  NOTCH  IN  FACE  FOR  DRAWING  NAILS. 
HAND  AXE.  (C)     FOR  LIGHT  CHOPPING. 

Any  of  these  can  be  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  a  hand  hammer. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


347 


FIG.  282. 


HAMMER    FOR    NAILING    AND 
DRAWING  NAILS. 


FIG.  283. 

RAILROAD  LANTERN. 

The  rolor  of  the  light  depends 

oa  the  color  of  the  glass 

globe  used. 


FIG.  284. 

LINING  BARS  FOR  THROWING  TRACK  WHEN  LINING  IT. 


FIG.  285. 

OIL  CAN  FOR  CAR  OIL. 


FIG.  286. 

SPRING    OILER   FOR    OILING 
HAND  PUSH  CARS. 


348      BUILDING  AND  HE  PAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  287. 

TRACK  OR  RAIL.  PUNCH. 


FIG.  288. 


RAILROAD  PADLOCK 
Used  with  a  chain  to  lock  hand  or 
push  cars  by  passing  the  chain 
through  the  two  wheels  on  the  same 
side  of  the  car  and  fastening  the 
chain  by  passing  the  padlock  hasp 
through  two  links  of  the  chain. 


FIG.  289. 

PICK  FOR  LOOSENING  EARTH,  CLAY  OR  HARD  GRAVEL. 


FIG.  290. 

TAMPING  PICK  WITH  ONE  POINT  ENLARGED  FOR  DRIVING  THE 
BALLAST  UNDER  THE  TIES;  THIS  IS  USED  FOR  TAMP- 
ING STONE  AND  SLAG  BALLAST. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


349 


FlG.  291. 

RAIL  TONGS  FOR  LIFTING  RAILS. 

The  head  of  the  rail  is  gripped  by  the  curved  ends 

and  the  long  bent  ends  serve  as  handles 

for  the  workmen  to  carry  the  rail. 


FIG.  293. 

HAND  SAW. 

Used  in  repair- 
ing gates,  fences 
and  other  light 
work. 


FIG.  294. 

CROSS  CUT 
SAW. 

Used  in  removing 
heavy  drift  from 
culverts  and 
bridges  and  other 
heavy  work. 


FIG.  292. 

RAIL  FORK  FOR  TURNING 

RAILS. 

,  The  slotted  end  Is  run  over 
the  base  and  the  fork  handle  is 
used  as  a  lever  or  the  tapered 
end  of  the  handle  placed  in  the 
bolt  hole  »nd  the  slotted  end  is 
used  as  a  lever  to  turn  the  rail. 


B 

FIG.  295. 

SCYTHES. 

A.  Light,  for  grass  and  weeds. 

B.  Heavy,  for  bushes  and  small  saplings. 


FIG.  296. 

SCYTHE  SNATHS  OR  HANDLES. 


350        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  297. 

SPIRIT  LEVEL  FOR  DETERMINING   THE    TRUE   HORIZONTAL  OR 
PERPENDICULAR. 


FIG.  298 

SPIKE  PULLERS. 

A.  Cant  hook  or  centennial  bar,  works  on  the  same  principle  as  a  cant  hook 
is  used  to  turn  a  piece  of  timber. 

B.  Shackle  Bar— This  uses  the  rail  as  a  fulcrum  and  aims  to  pull  the  spike 
without  bending  it.    The  common  claw  bar  is  mostly  used  for  pulling 
spikes.    See  Fi<r.  274. 

C.  Is  an  attachment  which  can  be  usod  with  n,  claw  bar,  rtc.    Will  dray 
»  spikes  from  between  contiguous  rails,  guard  rails,  switches,  frogs,  and 

at  platforms;  can  also  be  used  on  bridges  and  in  tunnels  and  cuts;  can  be 
attached  to  any  claw  bar,  and  will  bend  the  spike  less  than  when  pulled 
in  the  usual  way.  Is  made  of  tempered  steel,  and  is  light,  strong,  dura- 
ble and  cheap. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


351 


FIG.  299. 

SPIKE  MAUL. 
For  driving  spikes  into  the  ties. 


FIG.  3DO. 


STONE  SLEDGE  HAMMER. 

Used  to  break   boulders  or   rocks 

sliding  into  cuts  and  other 

work  of  this  class. 


FIG.  301. 


RAILROAD  SHOVEL. 

For  tamping  earth,  sand 

and  some  varieties  of 

gravel  ballast  and 

for  ditching,  etc. 


FIG.  302. 

SCOOP  SHOVEL. 

For  handling  gravel,  cinders, 

snow  or  other  light  material 

or  very  soft  wet  earth 

which  will  run  off 

an  ordinary 

shovel. 


FIG.  304. 


TRACK  LEVER  OR  LIFTING  BAR,  USED  FOR 
HEAVY  TRACK  WORK. 


FIG.  303. 

LONG  HANDLED 
SHOVEL. 

For  digging  deep  trenches 

or  deep  holes  as   for 

telegraph  poles. 


FIG.  305. 


HUNTINGTON  S  TRACK  GAUGE. 

Can  also  be  used  to  square  ties  with  the  rail,  thoueh  there  are  roads  having 
a  special  tool  for  squaring  the  ties  with  the  rail. 


352        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  306. 

MCHENRY  TRACK  GAUGE. 

It  is  similar  to  the  Huntington  Gauge  shown  in  Fig.  305,  the  special  fea- 
ture being  the  arrangement  for  accurately  gauging  curves  which  is  now  left 
almost  entirely  to  guess  work.  Five  steel  shims,  each  54-inch  thick  (shown 
in  enlarged  end  cut)  each  representing  three  degrees  of  curvature,  provide 
for  properly  gauging  curves  up  to  15  degrees.  For  straight  track  the  shims 
are  pushed  up  out  of  the  way.  The  change  is  easily  and  quickly  made. 


FIG.  307. 


A-COMMON  TRACK  LEVEL. 

B— DUPLEX  TRACK  LEVEL.  Contains  two  level  glasses,  one  fixed  in  the 
board,  the  other  attached  to  a  movable  indicator  arm.  By  moving  the 
indicator  arm  until  the  level  glass  attached  to  it  comes  true,  it  will 
show  on  the  scale  exactly  how  much  out  of  level  the  track  is.  For 
use  on  curves  it  can  be  set  at  the  proper  elevation  for  the  outside 
rail  which  can  then  be  raised  until  the  bubble  indicates  level  position. 
It  is  convenient  and  accurate.  This  level  can  be  arranged  to  serve 
also  as  a  track  gauge. 

C-MCHENRY  INVOLUTE  TRACK  LEVEL. 

In  this  level,  means  for  adjustment  are  provided  and  it  can  be  used  on 
dead  level  or  for  elevations  up  to  six  inches.  The  proper  amount  of 
elevation  is  secured  by  means  of  a  steel  plate  fitted  into  a  slot  at  one 
end  of  the  level.  This  plate  is  curved  in  such  a  way  as  to  raise  the  level 
from  the  rail  to  the  full  limit  of  six  in  hes  while  keeping  the  contact 
point  with  the  rail  at  the  same  relative  position. 

In  addition  to  these  styles,  a  board  six  inches  wide,  fifteen  feet  long,  and 
one  and  one-half  inches  thick,  having  two  spirit  levels  is  used  to  test  the 
levels  across  two  tracks,  to  detect  low  joints  before  they  are  noticeable  to 
the  eye  and  to  detect  any  vertical  or  horizontal  bending  of  the  rails. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


353 


-  5  6 * 

FIG.  308. 

TAMPING  BAR  USED  TO  TAMP  ALL  CLASSES  OF  BALLAST 
EXCEPT  SLAG  AND  STONE. 


FIG.  309. 

TORPEDO. 

Used  to  give  warning  to  an  approaching  train  during  foggy  weather  or  at 
night  that  the  track  has  bf  en  damaged  or  that  there  is  some  obstruction 
ahead;  it  contains  an  explosive  which  gives  a  loud  noise  when  the  engine 
passes  over  it,  thus  warning  the  engineer. 


FIG.  310. 

RAILROAD  TOOL  CHEST. 

Chest  6  feet  long,  2  feet  2  inches  broad,  and  2  feet  4  inches  high,  of  good 
heavy,  seasoned  pine  lumber  with  hardwood  handles  on  either  side,  cover  of 
two  thicknesses  of  matchpd  plank  running  different  ways  with  a  strip  of 
canvas  between,  making  it  water-tight;  all  has  one  coat  of  good  metallic 
paint,  and  chest  has  hasp,  staple,  lock,  etc.,  complete.  The  following  list 
of  tools  for  gang  of— say  6  men  is  generally  sent  with  the  chest: 

Red  Flag.  2  Tamping  Bars.  1  Track  Level 

Green  Flag.          2  Lining  Bars.  1  Rail  Fork 

White  Lantern.   2  Spike  Mauls.  1  Pair  Track  Tongs. 

Red  Lantern.        6  Shovels.  3  Chisels. 

Adze.  2  Picks.  1  Oil  Can. 

Claw  Bar.  1  Track  Gauge.  1  Water  Pail. 

Axe.  1  Track  Wrench.  1  Drinking  Cup. 

The  list  of  Tools  here  given  is  largely  used  by  the  railways  on  the 
prairies  of  Illinois  and  adjoining  states. 

23    Vol.  13 


354       SV 'TIDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


Fia.  311. 

TRACK  WRENCH. 

Used  to  tighten  the  nuts  at 
rail  joints;  the  tapered  end  is 
used  to  insert  in  the  bolt 
holes  of  the  splices  and  rails  to 
bring  them  into  line  for  in- 
serting the  bolt. 


FIG.  312. 

MONKEY  WRENCH. 

This  can  te  adjusted  to  fit  nuts  of  different 
sizes. 


FIG.  313. 

RAILROAD  BARROW. 

The  policy  of  trying  to  provide  every  appli- 
ance to  meet  any  and  all  emergencies  is  not  wise; 
precaution  against  accident  can  be  carried  so  far 
as  to  incur  so  great  an  expense  that  the  road 
would  be  embarrassed  financially.  Some  railway 
systems  furnish  each  section  gang  only  such  tools 
as  are  necessary  in  actual  work  and  a  small  stock 
of  tools  for  emergency  work  is  kept  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  roadmaster. 

The  character  of  a  workman  may  be  deter- 
mined by  his  tools.  If  found  in  proper  order  and 
ready  for  any  emergency,  he  may  be  classed  as  a 
first-class  foreman.  Good  tools  are  necessary  for 
good  work.  Foremen  should  be  provided  with 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


355 


suitable  boxes  and  racks  for  their  tools  and  should 
not  allow  them  to  become  mixed. 

There  should  be  a  systematic  inspection,  of 
tools  by  the  roadmaster.  Every  foreman  should 
be  required  to  have  his  full  number  of  tools  in 
efficient  condition  at  all  times.  Spirit  levels 
should  be  tested  and  adjusted  at  each  inspection. 

Hand  Cars.  At  stations  where  there  are  yards 
requiring  a  number  of  switch  lights,  section  men 
on  some  roads  are  required  to  put  them  up  and 
take  them  down.  To  facilitate  this  work  cars 
especially  designed  are  used  ;  Fig.  315  illustrates 


FIG.  315. 


FOUR- WHEELED  ECLIPSE  LIGHT  WEIGHT  CAR,  WITH  HEAD- 
LIGHT AND  BOXES  FOR  LANTERNS  AND  TOOLS 
SUITABLE  FOR  TUNNEL  USE. 


356       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

a  car  suitable  for  taking  out  a  large  number  of 
switch  lights;  it  is  also  equipped  with  ahead  light 
and  can  be  used  for  tunnel  work. 

"the  roadmaster  should  be  provided  with  a 
velocipede  to  enable  him  to  get  over  his  territory 
or  to  make  a  close  inspection  of  special  portions 
of  it.  FIG.  316  represents  such  a  car — it  can  be 


FIG.  316. 

VELOCIPEDE  CAR. 

carried  on  the  platform  of  a  baggage  car  or  in 
the  baggage  car  as  desired. 

Drainage.  Drainage  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  maintaining  a  good  track,  water 
being  its  worst  enemy;  the  duty  of  every  section 
foreman  is  to  lead  it  away  from  the  roadbed. 
Time  spent  in  perfecting  the  drainage  will  be  re- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  357 

paid  by  decreasing  the  labor  required  on  other 
work.* 

The  roadbed  in  cuts  and  on  fills  should  be  kept 
in  such  a  condition  that  the  water  falling  on  it 
during  rains  or  melting  snow  will  run  off  at  right 
angles  and  not  run  down  the  grade  in  gullies  or 
depressions  so  that  large  quantities  run  off  at  one 
point,  thus  cutting  away  the  embankment. 

Bolting.  Bolting  should  be  done  by  placing 
two  bolts  in  each  splice  and  tightening  sufficiently 
to  hold  the  rail  to  line;  afterward  the  remaining 
bolts  should  be  placed  as  soon  as  possible:  the 
nuts  will  require  tightening  several  times  during 
the  first  sixty  days  on  new  track,  but  they  should 
not  be  tightened  with  such  force  as  to  injure  the 
threads  or  grip  the  rail  so  tight  as  to  prevent 
expansion. 

Spiking.  Spiking  should  be  done  by  driving 
the  spike  vertically  to  a  true  bearing  against  the 
rail  base  and  driving  should  be  stopped  when  the 
spike  comes  to  a  tight  bearing  on  the  rail  or  the 
head  of  the  spike  will  be  damaged.f 

Lining.  Lining  should  be  done  to  stakes  set 
by  the  engineer.  One  rail  should  be  lined  up 
from  the  track  centers,  and  the  other  rail  lined 
by  bringing  it  to  the  proper  gauge  with  the  line 
rail.  Where  track  is  badly  out  of  line  it  should 
be  thrown  only  part  of  the  distance  at  one  move- 
ment, shifting  the  entire  length  a  foot  or  eighteen 

*This  subject  was  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Construction 
and  what  was  stated  there  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  main- 
tenance of  way. 

fSee  "Spiking"  in  first  article  of  Appendix  J. 


358      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

inches  at  a  time  and  repeating  this  until  it  is 
brought  approximately  to  line.  When  the  line 
rail  is  brought  to  the  exact  line  at  one  point  the 
following  procedure  should  be  adopted:  Set  up  a 
stake,  rod  or  spirit  level  on  end  so  one  edge  comes 
against  the  gauge  side  of  the  rail,  then  proceed 
to  bring  the  line  rail  to  line  at  another  point  some 
150  to  200  feet  distant  from  this  point  to  the 
first  one,  direct  the  section  men  which  way  to 
throw  the  track,  throwing  first  the  joints  then 
the  centers  and  quarters;  when  the  track  is 
brought  close  to  line  the  foreman  must  put  his 
eye  close  to  the  rail  to  detect  bends  which  can- 
not be  seen  standing;  after  one  section  is  lined 
take  up  another  and  so  proceed  through  the  entire 
work.  To  correct  errors  the  sections  should  be 
lined  from  both  ends.  The  outer  rail  on  curves 
must  be  the  line  rail  and  the  widening  of  gauge 
made  with  the  inner  rail.  On  curves  the  align- 
ment must  be  watched  closely  and  in  the  absence 
of  the  engineers7  center  stakes  the  curvature 
should  be  tested  by  the  rule  given  in  table  No. 
18,  Appendix  J.  Gauging  the  track  must  be  given 
careful  attention.*  Joints  and  centers  should  be 
gauged  first  and  afterwards  as  many  points  as 
may  be  necessary  to  bring  the  rail  into  true  gauge 
with  the  line  rail;  track  gauges  must  be  placed 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  rail  and  their  accuracy 
must  be  tested  by  the  roadmaster  at  least  once 
during  the  season.  Track  on  curves  must  be 
gauged  frequently  to  keep  it  in  gauge. 

*In  this  connection  the  reader  should  note  what  is  said  in 
chapter  on  "Track"  and  in  Appendix  J.  Also  Table  No.  16, 
Appendix  J. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  359 

Surfacing.  Surfacing  must  be  done  to  stakes 
set  by  the  engineer.  When  the  work  is  being 
done  in  long  stretches  a  straight  edge  or  long 
track  level  must  be  placed  on  the  tops  of  the 
stakes  on  each  side  of  the  track  and  the  track 
raised  by  track  jacks  so  that  the  rail  touches 
the  level.  The  ties  at  this  point  should  then  be 
thoroughly  tamped.  The  same  method  of  pro- 
cedure will  be  adopted  at  the  next  pair  of  engi- 
neers' stakes  and  so  on.  The  intermediate  rails 
can  be  brought  to  grade  by  placing  blocks  four  to 
six  inches  high  at  each  of  the  above  points  and 
by  the  foreman  sighting  from  one  block  to  the 
other  and  a  section  man  holding  a  third  block 
between  the  joints  and  centers  of  all  the  rails  to 
be  brought  to  grade;  this  latter  work  should  be 
done  on  the  line  rail;  then  with  a  long  straight 
edge  or  track  board  the  points  between  the  joints 
and  centers  can  be  brought  to  grade.  The  other 
rail  can  be  brought  to  grade  with  the  track  level. 
This  level  should  often  be  tested  by  reversing  it 
on  a  level  surface.  Where  the  length  of  the  track 
to  be  surfaced  is  short  or  only  slightly  out  of  sur- 
face in  spots  and  the  amount  to  be  lifted  is  small, 
a  track  jack  need  not  be  used — the  lifting  in  such 
cases  can  be  done  with  bars.  On  curves  and  spirals 
the  proper  elevation  must  be  given.* 

At  bridges  the  track  should  never  be  raised 
above  the  exact  grade;  no  allowance  should  be 
made  at  such  places  for  the  trains  bringing  the 
track  to  grade.  Once  a  year  a  general  surfacing 

*See  elevation  of  outer  rail  on  curves  in  chapter  on  "Track", 
Appendix  J  and  Table  No.  17,  Appendix  J. 


360       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

should  be  done  over  the  entire  section;  the  track 
should  be  raised  just  enough  for  proper  tamping; 
section  men  are  inclined  to  raise  it  too  much  if 
not  carefully  watched.  Where  the  ballast  is  stone, 
slag  or  coarse  gravel,  the  track  will  have  to  be 
raised  one  to  two  inches  to  secure  thorough 
tamping,  while  with  sand,  cinders,  earth,  or  fine 
gravel  a  rise  of  one-half  to  one  inch  can  be  made 
by  tamping  without  disturbing  the  bed  of  the  tie. 
This  work  can  be  done  to  advantage  after  the  re- 
newal of  ties  which  should  be  early  in  the  season 
and  again  before  winter. 

Tamping.  Tamping  is  done  at  the  same  time 
as  surfacing.  The  amount  of  track  lifted  off  its 
old  bed  for  surfacing  and  tamping  at  any  one 
time  should  never  be  of  a  greater  length  than  can 
be  fully  tamped  between  trains;  both  rails  should 
be  brought  to  surface  before  the  tamping  is  fully 
done.  Earth,  sand  and  gravel  ballast  can  be 
tamped  by  two  men  on  opposite  sides  of  the  tie 
working  with  a  shovel  pressing  the  ballast  by  a 
prying  motion  under  the  tie;  more  satisfactory 
work,  however,  is  done  by  finishing  the  tamping 
with  tamping  bars.  Coarse,  clean  gravel,  slag 
and  stone  ballast  requires  more  force  to  drive  it 
under  the  tie  and  a  tamping  pick  is  used  for  this 
purpose.  On  new  track  the  full  length  of  the  tie 
should  be  tamped,  on  old  track  a  foot  each  side 
of  the  rail  should  be  tamped  firmest  and  the  center 
of  the  tie  but  slightly  or  not  at  all,  this  prevents 
the  track  from  becoming  center  bound,  which  in- 
creases the  tendency  to  get  out  of  line,  and  also 
the  liability  of  the  ties  breaking  at  the  center. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  361 

Joint  ties  should  be  tamped  first  and  the  others 
afterwards,  bringing  the  rail  to  grade  with  the 
joint.  The  ties  at  crossings,  switches  and  frogs 
should  be  tamped  very  thoroughly. 

Low  joints  will  be  a  frequent  trouble  in  track 
on  a  new  road  and  the  uneven  settlement  of  the 
embankments  will  require  a  great  deal  of  extra 
labor  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  section 
force. 

Tie  Renewals.  Tie  renewals  are  generally  de- 
cided by  the  roadmaster  jointly  with  the  section 
foreman.  These  renewals  should  never  bo  in 
long  continuous  stretches,  but  on  the  basis  of  what 
is  known  as  "spotting"  the  ties.  The  section 
foreman  should  go  over  his  section  and  mark 
those  ties  which  he  thinks  are  unfit  for  further 
service;  afterward  the  roadmaster  accompanies 
him  and  he  decides  the  number  of  ties  to  report 
for  each  mile  and  section;  and  the  management 
decides  how  many  their  resources  will  permit 
them  to  allow  for  the  next  season.  When  ties 
are  renewed  in  long  continuous  stretches,  a  large 
percentage  of  them  again  require  renewal  at  the 
same  time.  This  is  liable  to  occur  during  a  period 
of  financial  depression,  while  if  the  renewals  were 
made  on  the  method  called  "spotting,"  careful 
attention  to  the  tie  renewals  could  be  so  managed 
as  to  greatly  decrease  the  expenses  at  such  a 
period.  New  ties  are  distributed  as  ordered  by 
the  roadmaster  in  the  early  spring  or  late  winter 
months,  so  that  the  section  force  can  commence 
putting  them  in  the  track  as  soon  as  the  frost  is 


362        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

out  of  the  ground.  Mr.  Tratman  states  :*  "  For 
tie  renewals  in  gravel  ballast,  the  ballast  is  cut 
away  from  the  ends  of  the  ties  and  loosened  along 
their  sides.  The  spikes  are  then  drawn  and  the 
rails  raised  slightly  by  jacks,  just  enough  to  allow 
of  the  old  tie  being  knocked  out  and  a  new  one 
slipped  in  on  the  same  bed.  The  ballast  should 
not  be  dug  out  under  the  tie  unless  the  new  tie 
•is  of  greater  thickness  (which  it  should  not  be), 
as  the  less  the  tie  beds  are  disturbed  the  better 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  track  surface.  This 
general  rule  may,  however,  be  modified  where 
only  one  or  two  ties  are  to  be  renewed  in  a  rail 
length,  but  In  this  case  a  loosening  of  the  side  of 
the  tie  bed  will  usually  enable  the  old  tie  to  be 
taken  out  and  the  new  one  put  in  without  much 
disturbance  of  the  bed,and  without  the  disturbance 
of  the  adjacent  track  which  is  incidental  to  rais- 
ing by  jacks.  With  stone,  slag  or  coarse  gravel 
ballast,  which  is  liable  to  fall  onto  the  tie  bed 
when  the  tie  is  removed,  it  is  necessary  to  dig 
out  the  ballast  at  one  side  of  the  tie,  and  to  knock 
the  tie  sideways  into  this  trench.  Some  foremen 
prefer  this  plan  with  earth  or  common  gravel, 
but  the  amount  of  digging  required  is  liable  to 
disturb  and  loosen  the  ballast.  This  plan  may, 
however,  be  employed  when  two  adjacent  ties 
have  to  be  renewed.  If  the  ties  are  not  uniform, 
the  larger  ones  should  be  selected  for  the  joints 
and  for  curves;  and  the  wider  end  should  be 
placed  under  the  outer  rail  on  curves.  The  ties 


*"  Rail  way  Track  and  Track  Work,'1  Tratman,  pp.  295,  296. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  363 

should  be  properly  spaced,  placed  square  across 
the  track  (or  radially  on  curves)  and  their  ends 
should  be  lined  at  one  side  of  the  track.  It  is 
rarely  economical  to  turn  old  ties  except  where 
tie  plates  are  to  be  applied,  and  then  it  is  prob- 
ably better  to  turn  the  ties  than  to  adze  out  new 
seats  on  the  old  worn  faces.  If  tho,  traffic  is 
heavy,  each  tie  should  be  tamped  and  have  the 
outside  spikes  driven  at  once.  Otherwise,  a 
number  of  ties  may  be  renewed  in  succession; 
one  man  going  ahead  to  cut  the  earth  or  gravel 
from  the  ends1  of  the  ties,  two  men  pulling  spikes, 
and  two  men  raising  the  track  with  jacks.  If 
only  one  jack  is  to  be  had,  the  rail  first  raised 
should  be  blocked  up,  and  the  jack  then  put  under 
the  other  rail.  When  20  or  30  ties  have  been 
thus  put  in,  three  men  are  sent  back  to  do  the 
spiking,  one  holding  up  the  ties  with  a  bar  and 
two  driving  the  spikes.  The  new  ties  should  be 
tamped  each  day  as  put  in,  the  tamping  being 
done  thoroughly  with  a  bar  or  pick.  The  ballast 
is  then  filled  in  between  the  ties  and  dressed  to 
proper  shape.  If  the  new  ties  are  shovel-tamped, 
or  only  partially  tamped  with  bars  and  then  left 
to  be  finished  a  few  days  later,  the  old  ties  will 
be  disturbed  and  a  soft  spot  probably  caused, 
especially  if  *rain  falls  before  the  tamping  is  done. 
No  train  should  be  allowed  to  pass  over  untamped 
track,  the  foreman  taking  it  for  granted  that  it 
is  safe.  At  the  end  of  each  week  the  ties  re- 
moved should  be  properly  piled  on  the  right  of 
way,  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  track  if 
they  are  to  be  loaded  on  cars,  or  midway  between 


. 


364       LUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  track  and  the  fence  if  they  are  to  be  burned. 
They  should  not  be  left  in  the  ditches  or  scat- 
tered about  the  right  of  way.  Ties  may  be  burned 
in  small  piles  of  5  to  10  or  in  large  piles  of  50, 
but  the  former  is  usually  the  better  and  safer 
plan.  The  piles  should  not  be  near  the  track  as 
the  intense  heat  is  injurious  to  the  paint  and 
varnish  of  cars.  Large  piles  should  be  burned 
in  damp  weather  to  reduce  the  danger  from  fire, 
and  in  all  cases  the  burning  piles  should  be 
watched  to  prevent  fire  from  spreading  to  fences, 
fields,  etc."* 

Tie  Plates.  Tie  plates  of  various  styles  and 
their  use  have  been  described  in  another  chapter. 
The  method  of  preparing  the  tie  to  properly  bed 
them,  and  the  method  of  placing  them  true  to 
gauge,  will  now  be  stated.  The  Ware  tie  plate 
surf acer  and  gauge  is  probably  more  used  than 
any  other;  it  admits  of  both  ends  of  a  tie,  how- 
ever roughly  hewn,being  brought  to  the  same  plane 
at  points  where  tie  plates  are  to  be  embedded 
or  rails  to  rest.  The  tie  plates  can  be  embedded 
into  the  ties  before  they  are  placed  in  the  track 
and  when  hewn  ties  are  used,  whether  tie  plates 
are  used  or  not,  they  can  be  properly  surfaced  at 
the  points  where  the  rails  are  to  rest,  in  advance 
of  the  work  of  putting  ties  into  the,  track.  The 
Ware  tie  plate  surfacer  and  gauge  is  illustrated 
by  Fig.  318. 

To  practically  apply  this  tool,  it  is  to  be  first 
adjusted  so  that  the  heads  1  and  2  will  be  the 

*The  reader  is  referred  'to  Appendix  J  for  practice  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Northern  Pacific  Railways. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


365 


^4i5  / 

4 

A 

J^ 


K 


FIG.  318. 

THE  WARE  TIE  PLATE  SURFACER  AND  GAUGE. 

E  is  a  perspective  of  the  combined  Tie  Plate  Surfacer  and  Gauge. 

H  is  an  elevation  of  the  tool  showing  its  use  on  a  tie  to  ascertain  the 
level  of  the  same  at  points  where  the  tie  plates  are  to  be  embedded. 

I  is  a  plan  showing  the  tool  as  used  to  square  and  gauge  the  tie  plates. 

K  is  an  elevation  showing  the  tool  as  used  for  testing  the  level  of  the  em- 
bedded tie  plates. 

L  is  the  plan  showing  the  implement  as  used  for  gauging  tie  plates  after 
ties  are  put  in  the  track. 


366       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

proper  distance  apart  to  correspond  with  the  de- 
sired track  gauge  and  with  the  dimensions  of 
the  tie  plates  that  are  to  be  used.  The  surfacers, 
4,  are  brought  accurately  into  the  same  plane, 
and  the  thumb  screw,  8,  is  then  tightened  to 
secure  the  adjustable  head. 

Where  hewn  ties  are  to  be  used,  it  will  gen- 
erally be  necessary  to  determine  the  level  of 
the  points  where  the  tie  plates  B  are  to  be  embedded 
or  set.  This  is  accomplished  by  laying  the  in- 
strument on  the  tie,  as  shown  in  H,  with  the 
surfacers  4  placed  flatwise  on  the  proposed  loca- 
tions of  the  tie  plates.  If  these  points  are  found 
to  be  not  sufficiently  in  the  same  plane,  the  sur- 
facers 4  will  indicate  the  uneven  places  that  will 
have  to  be  leveled  with  an  adze.  The  tie  being 
shown  to  be  level,  or  substantially  so,  at  re- 
quired points,  the  tool  will  then  be  turned  partly 
over,  as  shown  in  I,  so  that  the  straight  edges  5 
will  be  in  contact  with  the  spots  where  the  tie 
plates  B  are  to  be  located.  Each  straight  edge  5 
forms  a  square  with  the  inner  face  of  the  ad- 
jacent surfacer. 

One  of  the  plates  is  then  put  into  the  angle 
formed  by  the  straight  edge  5  and  inner  side  of 
the  surfacer  4,  on  what  is  known  as  the  line  end 
of  the  tie.  Thus,  this  tie  plate  is  accurately 
squared  to  the  position  to  be  occupied  by  the  rail. 
The  tool  is  then  removed,  leaving  the  tie  plate  in 
position,  and  this  tie  plate  can  be  set  or  em- 
bedded into  hardwood  ties  by  the  means  of  a 
suitable  wooden  beetle  without  the  use  of  any- 
thing to  protect  the  most  frail  tie  plate  from 
injury. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  367 

The  tool  is  then  put  back  on  the  tie  in  the 
position  represented  in  I,  so  that  the  second  tie 
plate  can  be  placed  to  accurately  conform  to  the 
required  position  with  relation  to  the  tie  plate  pre- 
viously set.  The  tool  having  been  again  removed, 
this  second  tie  plate  will  now  be  embedded  the 
same  as  the  first. 

If  desired,  the  tool  can  now  be  applied  as 
shown  in  K,  with  the  surfacers  4  turned  flatwise, 
to  test  the  surface  level  of  the  tie  plates.  The 
position  and  level  of  these  tie  plates  being  found 
satisfactory  the  tie  is  now  ready  to  be  placed  in 
the  track. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  by  the  aid  of  this  tool 
the  plates  can  be  quickly  and  accurately  applied 
to  a  tie  at  the  required  gauge  or  distance  apart 
before  the  tie  is  placed  in  the  track  and  in  such 
relation  to  the  rail  bases  that  there  will  be  no 
difficulty  in  subsequently  entering  through  the 
holes  B  the  spikes  that  are  to  secure  the  rails. 

To  apply  tie  plates  to  ties  already  in  the 
track,  see  L,  from  which  will  be  seen  that  the 
fixed  head  1  has  the  end  of  its  surfacer  4  made 
on  a  concave  or  arc  10  with  end  points  11  in  the 
same  plane;  this  will  enable  that  end  of  the  in- 
strument to  be  placed  closely  and  accurately 
against  the  web  or  base  of  the  rail  that  is  already 
in  the  track.  Thus,  if  it  is  desired  to  apply  tie 
plates  to  ties  that  are  in  the  track,  the  spikes 
must  be  drawn  from  the  rails  under  which  they 
are  to  be  embedded  and  the  rails  moved  out  on 
the  end  of  the  ties,  the  same  as  is  usually  done 
in  the  work  of  changing  rails.  By  this  means 


368      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  rail  is  entirely  out  of  the  way  of  embedding 
plates.  If  the  ties,  at  points  where  the  plates  are 
to  be  set,  are  known  to  be  sufficiently  level  to 
allow  the  plates  to  be  properly  embedded,  the 
work  of  embedding  can  now  proceed,  by  first  plac- 
ing the  fixed  head  1  as  shown  in  L  and  the 
adjustable  head  2,  having  been  previously  adjusted 
to  the  required  gauge  by  the  means  of  thumb  screw 
8,  a  tie  plate  will  be  placed  against  the  square  end 
of  surfacer  4  of  the  adjustable  head  and  against 
12  where  it  will  be  ready  to  embed  as  before 
described. 

For  economical  and  expeditious  work  of  apply- 
ing plates  in  this  way,  it  has  been  found  advisable 
to  get  as  many  spikes  drawn  as  safety  will  allow, 
plug  all  spike  holes  and  do  all  adzing  possible 
before  disturbing  the  rails.  Then,  when  there  is 
sufficient  time  between  trains  to  allow  of  such 
work  being  done,  put  all  the  men  with  claw  bars 
at  work  to  draw  the  remaining  spikes  and  move 
the  rails  out  on  the  end  of  the  ties  as  befoie  de- 
scribed, then  organize  the  men  three  in  a  gang, 
one  man  to  carry  the  gauge  and  place  the  plates 
in  the  square;  the  other  two  men  with  wooden 
beetles  settle  the  plates  into  the  ties.  The  first 
blow,  at  least,  should  be  given  by  a  man  standing 
at  right  angles  with  the  longitudinal  ribs  of  the 
tie  plate,  if  such  plates  are  being  used;  this  will 
cause  the  plate  to  settle  more  accurately.  When 
sufficient  number  of  plates  have  been  embedded 
to  allow  rails  to  be  moved  into  position,  turn 
back  one  of  the  embedding  gangs  to  move  the 
rails  in  onto  the  plates  and  spike  them;  thus 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  369 

keeping  the  different  parts  of  the  work  going  at 
the  same  time,  so  that  should  an  unexpected 
train  arrive  there  would  be  little  delay  in  mak- 
ing the  track  passable.  By  using  this  method 
plates  can  be  embedded  with  surprising  rapidity 
and  perfectness. 

Rails  and  rail  joint  fastenings.  Rails  and  rail 
joint  fastenings  were  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  " Standards"  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  that 
chapter. 

Ditches  and  embankments.  All  ditching  in  cuts, 
dressing  up  of  embankments  and  ballast  should 
be  done  in  a  manner  to  retain  the  standard  cross 
sections  adopted.  Under  no  conditions  should 
e%rth  be  taken  off  the  shoulder  of  an  embank- 
ment to  be  used  in  raising  track  or  ballasting; 
neither  should  earth  be  taken  from  the  slopes  to 
build  out  the  shoulder  of  an  embankment — this 
leads  to  a  slackness  in  the  slope  as  shown  in  the 
chapter  on  "Construction,"  Fig.  45.  The  bermes 
should  not  be  robbed  to  secure  material  for  slack 
embankments,  they  keep  the  water  away  from 
the  roadbed  and  aid  in  drainage. 

Small  repairs  to  embankments  can  be  made  by 
the  section  gang  cleaning  ditches  in  the  cuts  and 
taking  the  material  with  a  push  car  to  the  point 
it  is  needed  on  the  embankment.  When  the 
slopes  of  embankments  need  extensive  repairs  it 
is  cheaper  to  put  on  a  work  train  or  a  gang  with 
teams,  plows  and  scrapers  if  the  embankment  is 
not  over  6  to  8  feet  high.  This  gang  should  take 
the  material  from  the  ditch  or  on  the  outside  of 
the  ditch;  under  no  circumstances  should  the 

24    Vol.  13 


370        BUILDING  Aid)  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

berme  be  disturbed.  As  the  freezing  of  winter 
followed  by  the  thawing  and  rains  of  spring 
brings  down  large  quantities  of  material  from  the 
slopes  of  some  cuts,  various  devices  have  been 
designed  to  aid  in  saving  labor  in  removing  it. 
Fig.  319  represents  the  American  Railway  Ditch- 
ing Machine,  which  is  designed  to  do  this  work. 


FIG.  819. 

AMERICAN  RAILWAY-DITCHING  MACHINE. 

For  cleaning  and  ditching  mud  cuts.  For  scraping  in  dry  cuts  after  same 
have  been  plowed.  Simple  in  construction  and  economical  in  operation. 
Durable  and  easily  handled ;  it  can  be  quickly  moved  ou  t  of  the  way  of  pass- 
ing trains.  Reversible,  works  either  way  without  turning  car  or  engine. 
Will  scrape  both  ditches  at  the  same  time.  The  buckets  are  used  in  the 
same  m;i  nner  as  an  ordinary  scraper. 

Directions  for  using  the  American  Railway  Ditching  machine.  — If 
possible  use  an  air-brake  locomotive  with  this  machine.  See  that  slack  be- 
tween car  and  engine  is  well  taken  up,  so  as  to  prevent  unnecessary  jerking. 
Strengthen  spring-hangers  in  the  ordinary  car,  as  the  strain,  at  times,is  quite 
severe.  This  result  can  be  accomplished  by  putting  in  additional  hangers. 
Use  as  small  a  wheel  on  car  as  possible;  20-inch  wheels  are  the  best 
size,  although  the  ordinary  flat  car  wheel  will  do  the  work. 

Switches* — Switches  were  discussed  in  a  gen- 
eral way  in  the  chapter  on  "Standards,"  and 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


371 


372       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

more  in  detail  in  the  chapter  on  "Track,"  to 
both  of  which  the  reader  is  referred.  A  Clarke- 
Jeffrey  Split  Switch  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  320. 
This  is  the  original  split  switch  first  used  in  the 
United  States;  the  improvements  introduced  by 
various  makers  have  had  for  their  purpose  the 
taking  up  of  the  wear  of  the  switch  points, 
thus  preserving  the  true  gauge  and  reducing  the 
liability  of  the  flanges  of  the  wheels  entering  be- 
tween the  rail  and  switch  point.  The  bridle  rods 
have  been  modified  to  give  greater  stiffness  in 
order  to  preserve  the  gauge,  and  in  the  Transit 
Split  Switch  (Fig.  321)  they  have  been  reduced 
to  one  and  placed  alongside  a  tie,  thus  facilitat- 
ing the  operation  of  tamping  the  ties  and  not 
being  in  the  way  of  snow  and  ice.  The  Channel 
Split  Switch  (Fig.  322)  has  no  bridle  rods.  The 
slide  plates,  in  some  cases,  are  extended  across 
the  track  from  rail  to  rail,  and  planed  out  for  the 
base  of  the  rail  to  set  in,  thus  preserving  the 
gauge  (see  Figs.  321  and  322).  There  are  makes 
of  switch  stands  which  admit  of  this  being  done. 
Fig.  135  represents  one.  The  adjustment  for  the 
wear  of  the  points  is  taken  up  by  some  makers  at 
the  switch  stand;  Fig.  321  shows  a  method  of 
doing  it  with  the  head  and  bridle  rods. 

Fig.  323  illustrates  the  Lorenz  Safety  Split 
Switch.  The  peculiarity  of  this  switch  consists 
in  the  safety  appliance  being  a  heavy  spring  at- 
tached to  a  bridle  rod  at  the  point  of  the  switch; 
this  spring  is  strong  enough  to  cause  positive 
motion  of  the  switch  points,  yet  when  a  car  from 
a  siding  runs  into  the  switch,  the  spring  Avill  give 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


373 


ml 


-IH 


1 


EH 


CM 
CO 


•h          &H 


8VILDINQ  AND  IMPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


__.  j 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


375 


FIG.  323. 

LORENZ  SAFETY  SPLIT  SWITCH. 


and  permit  the  car  to  pass  through  and  the  spring 
will  throw  the  switch  points  back  to  their  orig- 
inal position. 

Illustrations  of  some  of  the  various  styles  of 
connecting  rods  to  connect  switches  with  switch 


Rigid  Connecting  Rod  with  Safety  End,  used  with  Switches  that 
have  large  pin  on  Head  Rod  with  Safety  Clip,  as  used  on  the  Dodd- 
ridge  Safety  Switch. 


Rigid  Connecting  Rod  with  Jaw  End,  used  with  Head  Rod  having 
Flat  End. 


Spring  Connecting  Rod. 

FIG.  324. 

VIEWS  OF  DIFFERENT  CONNECTING  RODS. 

A  is  used  with  the  bridle  red. 

C  is  a  substitute  for  the  spring  on  the  Lorenz  switch. 


376 


BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


stands  are  given  in  Fig.  324,  and  an  illustration 
of  some  of  the  bridle  rods  and  methods  of  attach- 
ing them  to  the  rails  of  stub  switches  and  switch 
points  of  split  switches  is  given  in  Fig.  325. 


Common  Tie  or  Back  Rod  for  Stub  Switch. 


Head  Rod  for  Ground  Switch  Stands. 


Head  Rod  for  Revolving  Switch  Stand. 


FIG.  325. 

VIEWS  OF  DIFFERENT  STYLES  OF  BRIDLE  RODS  AND  METHODS 
OF  CONNECTING  THEM  TO  THE  RAIL. 

Frogs. — Frogs  were  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
"Standards;"  Figs.  326  and  327  illustrate  two 
styles  of  yoked  frogs.  One  is  made  by  the  Ram- 
apo  Iron  Works,  and  the  other  Strom  frog  by 
Pettibone,  Mulliken  &  Co.  Both  aim  to  prevent 


FIG.  32^. 

RAMAPO  YOKED  FROG. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


377 


FIG.  327. 

STROM  CLAMP  OR  YOKED  FROG. 
A — For  sidings. 
B — For  crossings  at  small  angles. 

the  yoke  slipping  by  different  methods.  In  the 
Ramapo  frog  the  clamp  is  turned  up  flatwise,  and 
is  anchored  by  a  rod  bolted  to  the  rail;  this  rod 
passes  through  the  yoke  key,  and  a  nut  screwed 
tight  against  the  key  and  fastened  by  a  nut  lock. 
The  cut  represents  the  point  and  wing  rails  con- 
nected by  a  notch,  though  they  can  be  planed 
straight  as  with  the  Strom  frog  if  desired.  With 
the  Strom  frog  the  main  point  of  difference  is 
that  the  clamp  or  yoke  is  bent  edgewise  and  the 
ends  of  the  clamps  are  forged  to  fit  the  rail  sec- 
tions, thus  doing  away  with  the  yoke  key;  the 
yokes  are  driven  on  tight,  and  anchored  by  stay 
rods  which  pass  over  the  end  of  the  wing  rails 
and  through  the  yokes.  Cotters  are  placed  in 
the  stay  rods  to  prevent  the  yokes  or  clamps 
from  slipping. 

Foot  guards  are  required  at  all  frogs,  and  guard 
rails  to  prevent  section  and  train  men  from  get- 
ting their  feet  fastened  so  they  cannot  escape 
from  approaching  trains.  Fig.  328  illustrates  a 


378       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

frog  having  wooden  foot  guards,  and  Fig.  329 
illustrates  the  use  of  iron  foot  guards. 


FIG.  328. 

FROG  WITH  WOOD  FOOT  GUARDS. 


FIG.  329. 

FROG  WITH  IRON  FOOT  GUARDS. 

Ordering  frogs  and  switch  points  or  tongues 
often  leads  to  confusion  on  account  of  the  section 
foreman  or  clerk  not  thoroughly  understanding 
when  they  are  right  or  left  hand.  A  good  rule 
is  to  stand  at  the  head  block  and  look  towards 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


o 

CO 
CO 


CO 
CO 


380      BUILDiftv  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  frog;  if  the  frog  is  on  the  right  hand  it  is  a 
right  hand  frog,  or  if  it  is  on  the  left  hand  it  is  a 
left  hand  frog;  the  same  rule  applies  to  the  switch 
points  or  tongues  of  a  split  switch  and  to  the 
head  blocks  of  a  stub  switch.  Fig.  330  illustrates 
a  right  hand  switch  and  Fig.  331  illustrates  a 
left  hand  one.  The  names  of  the  different  parts 
of  a  frog  and  their  uses  are  illustrated  by  Fig. 
332.  Instructions  for  taking  the  angle  of  a  frog 
are  given  in  Fig.  333.  Tables  No.  11  and  12, 


FIG.  332. 


RIGHT  HAND  FROG. 

With  the  names  of  the  different  parts;  the  names  would  be  the  same  with 
a  left  hand  frog  only  the  main  and  side  points  would  change  positions. 
The  main  point  connects  with  the  main  line  rail  and  the  side  point  with  the 
side  track  rail. 


FIG.  333. 


TO  TAKE  THE  ANGLE  OP  A  FROG. 

Measure  A-B  and  C-D  and  add  them  together,  then  divide  the  distance 
B-C  by  their  sum. 

Example:  Distance  A-B=8",  C-D=4",  then  8  +  4=12.  The  distance 
B-C=72",  72-M2=6  or  No.  6  Frog. 

Caution.  In  measuring  be  careful  that  all  measurements  are  made  on 
the  running  line. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


381 


Appendix  J,  give  the  angles  of  frogs  of  different 
numbers.  Headblocks  or  headchairs  are  made  of 
either  cast  or  wrought  iron.  Fig.  334  illustrates 


FIG.  334. 


HEAD  BLOCKS  OR  HEAD  CHAIRS  FOR  STUB  SWITCHES. 
Nos.  I  and  2  for  rierht  hand  main  line  rail. 
Nos.  4  and  5  for  left  hand  main  line  rail. 
Nos.  2  and  4  for  single  throw  switch. 
Nos.  4  and  5  for  three  throw  switch. 
Nos.  6  aiid  7  cast  iron  rail  braces. 


FIG.  335. 

BRYANT  PORTABLE  RAIL  SAW, 
Capable  of  sawing  a  rail  up  to  100  Ibs.  per  yard. 


382       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


a  pair  for  single  and  three  throw  switches.  The 
chapter  on  "Track"  and  the  tables  in  Appendix  J 
give  instructions  about  laying  out  side  tracks.  In 
laying  out  sidings  and  placing  guard  rails  it  is 
often  necessary  to  cut  the  rails — this  should 
always  be  done  with  a  rail  saw.  Fig.  335  illus- 
trates a  Bryant  portable  rail  saw  and  the  rails 
should  be  properly  curved  before  laying  them. 
Fig.  336  and  337  illustrate  rail  benders. 


FIG.  336. 

RAIL  BENDER  AND  STRAIGHTENER. 

Place  Bender  over  rail  as  shown  above,  turn  up  nut  on  center  screw  with 
Jong  wrench  furnished  with  each  machine,  until  set  for  desired  curve,  then 
place  socket  wrench  on  pin  in  center  roller,  put  long  lever  on  top  of  socket 
and  then  one  or  more  men  at  each  end  of  lever  can  turn  center  roller,  which 
causes  tVe  machine  to  move  forward  on  rail,  bending  same  as  it  moves. 
To  straight*  n  rails,  place  machine  on  opposite  side  of  curve  and  then  op- 
crate  as  above.  The  number  of  men  necessary  to  do  tbe  work  is  governed 
by  weight  of  rail  and  curvature  desired. 

Switches  and  frogs  require  constant  attention 
to  keep  them  in  good  working  order  and  safe  for 
fast  trains;  in  the  winter  the  ice  aod  snow  must 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT, 


383 


384       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

be  removed  promptly  after  each  storm.  The 
Roadm asters'  Association  in  1898  recommended 
for  split  switches — points  fifteen  feet  long  prop- 
erly reinforced  and  provided  with  stop  lugs,  two 
adjustable  tie  bars,  a  wrought  iron  plate  extend- 
ing through  under  both  rails  with  rail  braces, 
slide  plates  under  main  rail  heavy  enough  not  to 
bend  and  to  have  rail  braces  on  the  outside. 

Creeping  rails.  Creeping  rails  are  another 
source  of  trouble  in  maintaining  track.  *  Creeping 
takes  place  at  switches  more  frequently  than  any 
where  else.  It  is  not  so  troublesome,  however, 
with  the  split  switch  as  with  the  stub  switch. 
The  Roadmasters'  Association  discussed  this  sub- 
ject at  their  annual  meeting  in  1898  and  came  to 
the  following  conclusion: 

The  creeping  is  not  alike  for  both  rails;  in 
double  track  roads  the  rails  creep  in  the  direction 
of  the  traffic;  the  movement  is  greater  on  down 
than  up  grades  and  is  worse  where  tracks  have  to 
be  laid  over  marsh  or  soft  yielding  sub-soil.  On 
single  track  it  is  most  noticeable  on  down 
grades,  and  where  there  are  descending  grades 
from  both  directions,  the  rails  creep  down  and 
come  together  in  the  valley.  On  curves  the  outer 
or  high  rail  creeps  the  more  and  where  there  are 
successive  reverse  curves  especially  on  grades, 
the  creep  starts  on  tangents  at  the  approach  and 
continues  on  the  high  rail  to  end  of  first  curve, 
then  the  opposite  rail  on  reverse  curve  shows  the 
more  creep.  In  other  words  the  high  rail  in  each 

*The  movement  of  the  rail  in  the  direction  of  its  length  is 
called  "creeping." 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  385 

successive  curve  is  found  to  creep  more  than  the 
low  rail.  The  cause  of  creeping  is  because  of  a 
rolling  load  passing  over  the  rail  which  depresses 
the  track  directly  under  it  and  produces  a  corre- 
sponding elevation  and  depression  ahead  and  be- 
hind it  which  may  be  likened  to  a  wave  motion. 
Mr.  F.  A.  Delano,  Superintendent  of  Freight 
Terminals  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
Railroad  assisted  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Howard  of  the 
Watertown  Arsenal  found  by  experiment  that 
the  ground  near  a  locomotive  weighing  110,000 
pounds  on  a  track  having  sixty-six  pound  rails 
resting  on  oak  ties,  seventeen  to  a  thirty-foot 
rail,  and  in  gravel  ballast,  the  greatest  depression 
was  0.161  inch  under  the  middle  driver.  Under 
similar  conditions,  but  with  cinder  ballast  instead 
of  gravel,  the  depression  under  the  middle  driver 
was  0.230  inch.  The  depression  of  the  ground 
caused  by  125,000  pound  locomotive  under  the 
above  conditions  with  gravel  ballast  at  a  point 
opposite  the  main  driver  was  as  follows: 

Distance  from  the  rail,  31  inches,  depression  0.047  inch. 
"          "        "      "    61      "  '  0.013     '« 

««      "    91       "  "         0.001     " 

With  the  track  depressed  under  the  weight  of 
an  engine  a  corresponding  rise  just  ahead  of  it  to 
be  afterwards  depressed  as  the  engine  approaches 
it  and  passes  over  it  produces  a  violent  wave 
motion  under  high  speed  which  is  the  cause  of 
creeping  rails.  The  movement  of  the  rail  tends 
to  carry  the  tie  with  it  and  where  the  ballast  is 
not  filled  up  to  the  top  of  the  tie  at  the  end,  the 
tie  acts  as  a  lever,  the  balance  at  the  center  being 

25    Vol.  13 


386       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

a  fulcrum  and  the  twisting  of  the  tie  in  the  track 
tends  to  tighten  the  gauge;  this  takes  place  more 
at  the  joint  ties  and  more  particularly  where  the 
rails  are  laid  with  broken  joints.     This  tendency 
to  move  the  ties  takes  them  off  their  well  tamped 
bed,  and  tends  to  produce  a  creeping  of  the  whole 
track  which  will  lead  to  a  general  disintegration 
and  destroy   the  alignment  and  surface,  which 
will  require  a  large  amount  of   hard   work  to 
place  the  track  in  proper  condition  again.    There 
is  not  at  present  any  known  method  of  prevent- 
ing rails  from  creeping,  but  the  evil  can  be  less- 
ened by  resorting  to  devices  for  anchoring  the 
rails  at  the  joint  by  spiking  the  tie  through  the 
slot  in  the  angle  bar;  the  larger  the  number  of 
ties  thus  spiked,  the  more  firmly  the  rail  is  se- 
cured.   Some  roads  having  rails  laid  with  broken 
joints  use  sections  of  an  angle  bar,  bolted  to  the 
rail  opposite  the  joint  and  spike  the  tie  through 
the  slot  in  these  sections  of  the  angle  bar;  this 
tends  to  prevent  the  tie  from  twisting  and  tight- 
ening the  gauge.     One  end  of  a  flat  bar  of  iron 
turned  half  round  is  sometimes  placed  inside  the 
nut  of  track  bolts  at  the  joint,  and  the  other  end 
spiked  to  a  tie  to  secure  greater  resistance.     At 
entrances  to  yards  or  points  where  the  rails  creep 
much,   some  roadmasters   anchor  the   rails  by 
spiking  a  piece  of  strap  iron  to  three   or  more 
ties,  the  spikes  being  placed  in  holes  bored  in 
the  strap  iron.    The  vertical  and  lateral  motions 
can  be  retarded  or  reduced  to  a  minimum  by 
having  a  stiff  rail  in  section  to  transmit  the  load 
over  the  greatest  possible  surface  of  ties  and  bal- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


387 


last  with  good  broad  ties  placed  as  close  together 
as  good  tamping  will  permit;  the  spikes  should 
be  well  driven  and  the  ballast  dressed  off  as  full 
as  possible  at  the  end  of  the  ties.  Figs.  338  and 
339  represent  plans  sometimes  adopted  to  allow 
for  the  expansion  and  contraction  at  difficult 
points. 


FIG.  338. 


PLAN  AND  ELEVATION  OF  A  JOINT  TO  TAKE  UP  THE  EXPAN- 
SION AND  CONTRACTION  OF  RAILS. 


FIG.  339. 


EXPANSION  JOINT  FOR  A  BRIDGE  OR  DIFFICULT 

PIECE  OF  TRACK. 

Used  on  bridges  and  at  points  where  expansion  and  contraction  of  rails 
is  such  that  they  cannot,  without  considerable  trouble,  be  kept  in  line.  This 
device  is  also  used  where  creeping  of  rails  is  troublesome. 


388         BUILDING  AND'REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Track  Sprinkling. — Oil  has  recently  been  tried 
to  reduce  the  dust  caused  by  fast  passenger 
trains;  the  oil  used  is  residuum  of  crude  petrol- 
eum, having  a  high  fire  test,  low  gravity  and 
only  a  faint  smell.  The  first  application  requires 
about  2,000  gallons  per  mile,  and  about  500  to  600 
gallons  per  mile  per  year  will  keep  the  ballast 
dustless,  after  tie  renewals,  etc.  The  sprinkling 
train  is  run  at  a  speed  of  about  3i  to  4  miles  per 
hour.  In  front  is  a  flat  car  fitted  with  a  2-inch 
pipe  across  between  the  rails  and  a  2-inch  swing 
pipe  on  each  side,  all  these  pipes  having  slots  on 
the  under  side.  The  supply  is  brought  from  a 
tank  car  to  these  pipes  by  a  4-inch  main.  The 
regulating  valves  and  swing  pipes  are  all  con- 
trolled by  levers  or  handles  on  the  flat  car.  With 
piping  swung  out,  a  distance  of  15  to  20  feet  of 
roadbed  may  be  sprinkled.*  Those  who  have 


FIG.  342. 


PLAN  AND  SECTION  SHOWING  PIPING  NECESSARY  TO  FIT  A 
FLAT  CAR  TO  SPRINKLE  TRACK  WITH  OIL. 


*  This  practice  originated  with  Mr.  J.  H.  Nichol,  Assistant 
Engineer  of  the  W.  J.  &  S.  Ry.,  in  1897,  and  has  since  been  fol- 
lowed on  the  Penn.  R.  R.,  Boston  &  Maine  R.  R.,  Long  Island 
Ry.,  and  Chicago,  Bur.  &  Quincy  R.  R. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  389 

used  it  claim  it  not  only  lessens  the  dust,  thus 
saving  the  journals,  but  it  causes  the  water  to 
run  off  the  roadbed  better,  giving  a  dryer  ballast, 
prevents  weeds  from  growing  and  preserves  the 
ties.  Fig.  342  shows  the  plan  and  elevation  of  a 
flat  car,  indicating  the  method  of  arranging  the 
pipes  filled  for  the  purpose  of  sprinkling  track 
with  oil. 

Crossings. — Road  crossings  should  never,  if 
possible  to  avoid  it,  be  made  where  the  track  is 
laid  in  a  cut.  They  should  be  of  ample  width 
and  easy  grade;  they  are  generally  made  by 
planking  spiked  to  the  ties;  good  results,  how- 
ever, have  been  secured  by  placing  a  plank  at 
each  rail  and  filling  in  between  the  planks  with 
broken  stone.  The  place  between  the  planks 
should  only  be  sufficient  to  give  clearance  for  the 
flanges  of  the  car  wheels.  A  cattle  guard  should 
be  placed  each  side  of  the  crossing,  and  fences 
run  from  the  cattle  guard  to  the  right  of  way 
fence. 

Signs. — Signs  are  required  for  a  number  of 
purposes.  They  are  of  two  classes,  one  warns  the 
public  and  the  other  guides  and  warns  the  train- 
men. At  all  side  tracks  low  posts  called  clear- 
ance posts  are  placed.  These  indicate  that  cars 
on  a  siding  should  not  be  placed  beyond  them,  as 
they  are  liable  to  interfere  with  passing  trains  on 
the  adjoining  track.  Yard  limit  posts  are  placed 
each  side  of  a  yard  to  indicate  to  approaching 
trains  the  track  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
yardmaster.  Posts  with  signs  having  the  name 
of  the  station  are  placed  each  side  of  a  station 


390       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

and  one  mile  from  it.  The  station  name  is  more 
noticeable  to  passengers  when  placed  on  the  ends 
of  the  station  than  when  on  or  in  front  of  it. 
Mile  posts,  with  the  number  of  miles  from  a  ter- 
minal point,  should  be  set  in  the  right  of  way  near 
the  fence  to  mark  the  beginning  and  ending  of  each 
mile.  The  sections  allotted  to  section  gangs  are 
numbered,  and  posts  giving  the  number  of  the 
sections  on  each  side  thereof  should  be  set  at 
the  ends  of  all  sections.  Farm  crossings  are 
sometimes  designated  by  a  sign  having  a  large  X 
plainly  painted  on  it;  this  is  placed  100  feet 
from  the  farm  crossing.  Road  crossings  should 
have  a  whistling  post  placed  1,000  feet  from  the 
crossing  and  a  sign  at  the  crossing  warning  the 
public  to  look  out  for  trains.  Railroad  crossings 
not  protected  by  an  interlocking  plant  should 
have  signs  placed  400  feet  distant  each  way  on 
both  roads,  notifying  all  trains  to  come  to  a  stop 
before  going  over  the  crossing.  Draw  bridges 
should  have  signs  placed  600  feet  each  side. 

Shimming. — "When  the  ballast  is  frozen  in 
the  winter  it  cannot  be  tamped,  and  if  the  track 
is  heaved  by  frost  the  surface  is  made  uneven 
both  transversely  and  longitudinally.  This  must 
be  tested  by  a  level  for  the  former  and  by  sight- 
ing or  the  use  of  a  long  straight-edge  for  the  lat- 
ter. In  such  cases  wooden  plates  or  shims  must 
be  placed  between  the  rail  and  the  tie  to  bring 
the  rail  up  to  proper  surface.  The  upper  face 
of  the  tie  should  not  be  adzed  to  lower  the  rail, 
unless  this  is  absolutely  necessary,  but  the  shims 
should  be  placed  on  the  lower  ties.  Shimming  is 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  391 

also  required  with  soft  ballast  that  is  so  soft  after 
heavy  rains  that  tamping  is  impracticable,  the 
ballast  and  roadbed  being  so  saturated  that  no 
other  method  of  surfacing  is  effective.     In  some 
very  bad  cases,  or  in  accidents,  blocking  must  be 
used  under  the  ties,  but  this  should  be  avoided 
when  possible,  and  the  foreman  must  see  that 
this  blocking  is  not  forgotten  and  left  in  place, 
but  that  it  is  taken  out  when  the  shims  are  re- 
moved or  when  the  ballast  has  dried  out  suffi- 
ciently to  give  the  track  a  proper  bearing.     As 
the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground  and  the  ground 
settles,  thinner  shims  must  be  substituted  for  the 
thicker  ones  to  prevent  surface  bending  of  the 
rails.     The  shims  should  never  be  left  in  place 
after  the  spring;  and  as  fast  as  they  are  removed 
the  spike  holes  in  the  ties  should  be  properly 
plugged.     Heaving  is  most  troublesome  in  earth 
and  clay,  but  is  also  felt  in  gravel.    Where  much 
trouble  is   experienced    from    heaving,   it  will 
usually  be  found  economical  to  apply  gravel  bal- 
last liberally;  as  the  spiking  and  shimming  injure 
the  ties  and  spoil  the  permanent  surface  of  the 
track.     The  shims  may  be  cut  by  the  section 
men,  but  it  is  better  to  use  those  cut  by  machin- 
ery having  two  spike  holes  bored  diagonally  oppo- 
site one  another.     They  are  about  6  inches  wide, 
and  the  length  should  be  at  least  equal  to  three 
times  the  width  of  the  rail  base,  so  as  to  give 
ample  room  for  spiking  and  keeping  the  spikes 
clear  of  the  angle-bars.     The  thickness  is  from 
1-inch  to  2  inches.     If  a  raise  of  more  than  2 
inches  is  required,  a  piece  of  1-inch  to  3-inch 


392       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

plank  should  first  be  spiked  to  the  tie  by  boat- 
spikes,  the  plank  being  about  two  feet  long,  or  as 
long  as  the  tie  if  both  rails  have  to  be  shimmed. 
Upon  this  plank  should  be  placed  shims  to  bring 
the  rail  to  the  required  level,  these  being  fast- 
ened by  long  spikes  passing  through  shims  and 
plank  into  the  tie.  With  specially  high  shim- 
ming it  is  well  to  place  rail  braces  outside  the 
rails,  especially  on  curves.  Where  tie  plates  are 
used,  the  plates  should  not  be  taken  off,  but  the 
shims  placed  on  them,  and  if  the  shimming  is 
high  a  tie  plate  may  be  placed  on  its  top.  The 
tie  should  be  adzed  to  give  a  level  seat  for  the 
shims.  Spiking  should  be  attended  to  as  fast  as 
the  shimming  is  put  in,  and  if  a  whole  rail 
length  is  to  be  shimmed,  the  joint,  center  and 
quarter  ties  should  be  first  shimmed  and  spiked." 
Fencing. — "In  setting  fences,  the  distance 
from  the  center  line  of  the  track  may  be  meas- 
ured by  a  tape,  and  the  line  of  fence  set  off  by  a 
cord  or  chain  100  to  200  feet  long,  having  tags  at 
the  post  spacing.  When  this  is  stretched  a  small 
hole  is  cut  at  each  tag  as  a  guide  to  the  post  set- 
ters. The  post  holes  should  be  of  uniform  depth, 
gauged  by  a  stick,  and  the  height  of  the  post 
above  ground  may  be  gauged  by  a  stick  having  a 
flat  piece  nailed  on  the  bottom.  This  latter 
stick  may  also  have  notches  for  the  fence  wires, 
to  hold  them  at  the  proper  spacing  while  being 
stapled  to  the  posts.  On  curves  the  position  of 
each  post  should  be  measured  from  the  center  of 
the  track,  and  a  mark  made  or  stake  driven. 
For  wire  fencing,  posts  may  be  set  and  tempor- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  393 

arily  braced  at  intervals  of  from  40  to  80  rods 
(660  to  1,320  feet)  and  one  wire  stretched  first 
as  a  guide  for  the  other  posts.  On  the  inner  side 
of  a  curve  the  wire  should  be  on  the  track  side 
of  the  post  or  on  the  track  and  field  sides  of  al- 
ternate posts.  The  wires  are  attached  to  a  strain- 
ing post  and  set  up  by  a  stretcher,  but  in  the 
absence  of  this  tool  a  lining  bar  may  be  used, 
placed  diagonally,  with  the  top  inclined  towards 
the  anchor  post,  and  the  wire  being  looped 
around  the  bar.  In  summer  the  wires  must  not 
be  drawn  too  tight.  With  board  fences  the  alter- 
nate posts  may  be  set  first,  16  feet  apart,  and  a 
line  of  boards  nailed  along  them  will  serve  as  a 
guide  for  lining  the  intermediate  posts.  The 
boards  should  be  on  the  farm  side  of  the  posts. 
The  material  arid  labor  per  mile  for  a  four-board 
fence  with  posts  8  feet  apart,  and  a  five-wire 
fence  with  posts  16  feet  apart,  are  about  as  fol- 
lows: 

Board  fence; 

660  posts. 

1,320  boards,  1x6  inches,  16  feet  long,  10,560  feet  B.  M. 
660  battens,  1x6  inches,  4  feet  long,  1,320  feet  B.  M. 
250  pounds  nails. 
65  days'  labor  for  one  man. 
Wire  fence: 

330  posts. 

26,400  feet  of  wire  at  440  pounds  per  strand,  2,200  pounds. 
75  pounds  staples. 
27  days'  labor  for  one  man. 

"  In  the  Trackman's  Helper/  by  Mr.  Kindelan, 
it  is  stated  that  the  average  day's  labor  for 
one  man  on  a  six-board  fence,  including  setting 
posts,  is  8  to  10  panels  where  the  boards  meet 
on  the  post,  or  13  to  15  panels  where  they  lap 


394      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

on  opposite  sides  of  the  post.  On  a  four-wire 
fence  with  16-foot  panels,  the  average  is  about 
15 -panels.  These  figures  vary,  of  course,  with 
the  details  of  the  work  and  character  of  the  men. 
The  cost  per  100  rods  (1,650  feet)  for  fence 
building  and  repairs,  with  labor  at  $1.50  per  day, 
has  been  estimated  as  follows:  Five-wire  fence: 
$6.00  for  removing  old  fence  and  posts;  $16.50 
for  putting  in  new  posts  3  feet  to  3  feet  6  inches 
deep  and  stringing  wires.  Board  fence:  $4.50  to 
$5.00  for  removing  old  fence  and  posts;  $32.00 
for  putting  in  new  posts  8  feet  long  (set  3  feet 
deep)  and  putting  on  seven  boards;  or  $42.00  for 
posts  10  feet  long  (set  3  feet  6  inches  deep)  and 
putting  on  nine  boards.  The  painting  or  daub- 
ing of  advertisements  on  board  fences  is  very  ob- 
jectionable, and  at  least  one  road  has  forbidden 
it,  making  a  practice  of  painting  out  such  disfig- 
uring marks." 

Clearing  Eight  of  Way. — "All  grass,  weeds  and 
brush  on  the  right  of  way  should  be  cut  at  least 
once  a  year,  and  preferably  twice  a  year.  This 
should  be  done  in  the  months  which  are  most 
suitable,  according  to  the  latitude,  but  being  in 
any  case  done  before  the  seeding  time  of  the 
plants.  After  the  grubbing,  cutting  and  mowing, 
the  material  should  be  raked  into  heaps  and 
burned  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough,  care  being 
taken  that  the  fire  is  not  allowed  to  extend  to 
fences,  trestles  or  adjoining  land.  Old  ties, 
splice  bars,  tools,  etc.,  found  during  this  clearing 
up  should  be  removed  and  properly  disposed  of. 
If  the  brush  on  the  right  of  way  is  allowed  to 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  395 

grow  too  long  it  is  liable  to  cause  accidents,  con- 
cealing cattle  which  may  stray  on  the  track  in 
front  of  a  train,  while  it  is  also  liable  to  catch 
fire  in  dry  weather,  such  a  fire  being  hard  to 
check  or  stop.  Reports  of  locomotives  which 
throw  sparks  badly,  and  of  fires  started  by  sparks 
from  locomotives,  should  be  made  by  the  section 
foreman  and  roadmaster.  The  spark  arresters  of 
locomotives  should  be  examined  frequently  in 
hot,  dry  weather,  when  standing  crops,  weeds  on 
the  right  of  way,  etc.,  are  liable  to  catch  fire. 
Where  the  right  of  way  is  covered  with  good 
grass,  it  may  be  mowed  and  used  or  sold  for  hay 
under  the  direction  of  the  roadmaster 

"The  grass  and  weeds  in  the  ballast  and  along 
the  sides  of  the  roadbed  have  also  to  be  cut  or 
pulled  up,  and  this  is  tiresome  and  unpleasant 
work,  though  necessary  for  keeping  a  good  look- 
ing track.  A  long  handled  sharp  hoe  is  better 
than  a  shovel  if  there  is  much  of  this  work  to  be 
done.  Where  this  work  is  only  done  periodically 
on  lines  not  kept  in  the  best  condition  for  appear- 
ance, it  may  be  economically  done  by  machinery. 
On  the  Intercolonial  Railway  the  wings  of  a  snow 
plow  have  been  fitted  with  vertically  adjustable 
steel  cutters,  13  inches  deep,  9  feet  long  and  & 
inches  thick.  The  first  cut  is  made  with  the 
wings  half  open,  cutting  the  ballast  slope.  The 
second  cut  is  made  with  the  wings  spread  to 
their  full  extent,  forming  the  berme  at  the  level 
of  the  subgrade  and  plowing  the  stuff  down  the 
bank.  Formerly  two  or  three  furrows  were 
plowed  with  a  farm  plow  and  a  pair  of  horses, 


306      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  sods  being  thrown  down  the  bank  by  track- 
men with  forks.  The  above  machine  is  hauled 
by  a  locomotive,  and  can  clean  20  to  25  miles  of 
track  in  a  day;  making  a  cut  on  each  side  3  feet 
to  9i  feet  from  the  rail  and  to  a  depth  of  2  feet 
below  the  top  of  the  rail.  The  crew  consists  of 
two  men  to  extend  or  close  the  wings,  and  two 
men  to  raise  and  lower  the  cutters  at  crossings, 
switches,  etc.  Such  a  machine  is  specially  valu- 
able on  single  track  roads  with  limited  section 
forces,  and  it  can  be  made  out  of  a  wing  snow 
plow,  or  by  attaching  wings  and  cutters  to  a  box 
car.  Many  ditching  machines  can  be  adapted  to 
this  work,  as  they  are  made  to  trim  off  the  bal- 
last slopes. 

"The  Sheffield  weed-cutting  hand  car  has  two 
toothed  cutter  bars  (like  those  of  a  reaping  ma- 
chine) projecting  from  a  frame  between  the 
wheels.  The  position  is  regulated  by  levers,  and 
the  knives  will  cut  close  to  the  ground  and  to  a 
distance  of  eight  feet  from  the  rail.  They  fold 
together  and  swing  up  to  a  vertical  position  at 
the  side  of  the  car  when  passing  an  obstruction. 
It  will  work  on  level  ground  or  on  slopes,  and 
when  worked  by  four  or  six  men  it  will  cut  along 
four  or  five  miles  per  day.  The  machine  should 
be  in  charge  of  a  man  with  some  knowledge  of 
machinery  and  having  some  skill  in  handling 
such  a  machine.  He  may  be  given  a  certain 
length  of  track  to  look  after  (say  100  miles)  and 
he  should  be  familiar  with  that  division.  When 
the  time  for  cutting  comes,  the  section  foremen 
are  instructed  to  see  that  all  portable  obstruc- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  397 

tions,  old  ties,  etc.,  are  removed  from  a  strip  at 
least  ten  feet  wide  from  the  rail.  The  man  in 
charge  takes  men  from  each  section  gang  to  work 
over  the  section,  making  a  straight  run  over  his 
entire  division,  and  then  returning  in  the  same 
way  to  cut  on  the  other  side  of  the  track.  This 
work  can  be  done  two  or  three  times  in  a  season, 
saving  much  labor  and  expense.  The  machine 
will  work  best  when  the  weeds  are  growing  rap- 
idly and  are  soft  and  tender.  It  has  cut  weeds 

10  feet  high  with  stalks  1  inch  thick,  though  it 
would  hardly  do  this  continuously  and  such  work 
would  be  hard  on  the  men.   Under  ordinary  con- 
ditions,  however,  the   car  can  be  run   at  good 
speed  and  the  work  is  not  severe. 

"Various  methods  have  been  tried  for  killing 
the  grass  and  weeds  growing  in  the  ballast,  but 
though  such  methods  would  be  advantageous  in 
saving  time  and  labor  expended  in  the  back-aching 
work  of  cutting  weeds  with  a  shovel  or  hoe,  none  of 
them  has  yet  so  combined  efficiency  and  low  cost 
of  operating  as  to  be  really  practicable  for  gen- 
eral work.  Such  a  method  would  be  specially 
advantageous  for  roads  having  many  weeds  and 
few  section  men,  which  is  the  condition  of  many 
roads  in  the  south  and  west.  Brine,  gasoline  or 

011  burners,  steam  jets  and  electricity  are  among 
the  means  experimented  with  in  this  direction. 
In  experiments  with  electricity  on  the  Illinois 
Central  Railway  a  'brush'  10  feet  long   and    4 
inches  wide  was  made  of  fine  bare  copper  wires 
and  suspended  from  the  front  of  a  flat  car  so  that 
it  would  almost  touch  the  ground.     Another  car 


398        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

contained  an  engine,  dynamo,  transformers,  etc., 
steam  being  taken  from  the  locomotive.  The 
cars  were  run  at  a  speed  of  about  5  miles  per 
hour,  and  two  trips  were  found  sufficient  to  kill 
all  the  vegetation,  an  advantage  of  this  process 
being  that  the  roots  were  absolutely  killed.  The 
brush  was  in  short  sections,  insulated  from  one 
another,  so  that  all  the  current  wrould  not  be  dis- 
charged through  any  one  weed,  etc.,  forming  a 
more  than  usually  good  conductor.  A  current  of 
10,000  volts  was  found  to  be  most  satisfactory. 
For  general  work,  however,  the  cost  of  this 
method  would  be  prohibitive.  Burning  weeds 
with  jets  from  burners  using  crude  oil  and  com- 
pressed air  has  been  tried  on  the  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul  &  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Railroad.  The 
apparatus  was  mounted  on  a  self-propelled  flat 
car  and  could  work  over  ten  miles  per  day,  con- 
suming 15  to  20  gallons  of  oil  per  mile.  A  strong 
solution  of  brine,  delivered  from  a  sprinkling  at- 
tachment on  a  water  tank  car  was  tried  at  one 
time  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Rail- 
way. It  effectually  killed  the  weeds,  but  caused 
a  slime  on  the  rails  which  led  to  slipping  of  the 
engine  wheels  and  corrosion  of  the  rail,  and  it 
was  therefore  abandoned. 

"In  some  few  cases  with  earth  ballast,  it  is  con- 
sidered well  to  let  the  grass  grow,  merely  cutting 
it  down  so  low  that  it  will  not  get  on  the  rails. 
Where  the  weeding  is  done  by  hand  it  should  be 
extended  to  a  'grass  line'  5  or  6  feet  from  the 
rail,  this  line  being  set  out  by  a  cord  and  stakes, 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  399 

or  marked  by  a  cutter  fixed  to  an  arm  bolted  to 
the  hand  car."* 

Snow.  "Section  foremen  should  ascertain  the 
condition  of  the  track  in  their  charge  immedi- 
ately after  every  snow  storm  (or  wind  storm) 
which  would  be  liable  to  drift  snow  upon  the 
track  and  report  to  their  roadmaster  the  depth 
and  length  of  snow  drifts  in  all  the  cuts  on  their 
sections.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
snow  reports  be  sent  promptly  to  the  roadmaster 
by  telegraph  in  order  that  the  officers  of  the  road 
may  be  able  to  make  necessary  preparations 
to  clear  the  track.  When  there  is  no  snow  in 
the  cuts  on  a  section  it  should  be  reported  clear 
of  snow.  Section  foremen  should  clear  away 
snow  which  has  drifted  upon  side  tracks  as  soon 
as  possible  after  a  storm,  and  the  snow  on 
switches  and  in  frogs  and  guard  rails  should  be 
shoveled  off,  and  the  track  for  the  full  length  of 
the  switch  lead  and  moving  rails  should  be  swept 
clean.  This  work  should  never  be  delayed,  be- 
cause all  freight  trains  will  need:  to  do  switching 
as  soon  as  the  road  is  open  for  traffic. 

"  During  the  winter  months,  when  snow  falls 
or  is  drifted  into  cuts  two  or  more  feet,  section 
foremen  should  take  their  i>xen,  just  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  storm,  and  remove  from  the 
track  sufficient  snow  at  the  ench  of  all  drifts  to 
leave  a  clean  flange  and  a  clear  face  of  snow  at 
least  18  inches  deep  at  both  the  approach  and 
run  out  end  of  the  drift.  It  is  a  notorious  fact 
that  a  great  many  engines,  when  btu  king  snow, 

*  "Railway  Track  and  Track  Work,"  Tratinan    pp.  307-311. 


400       mi  LSI NG  AXD  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

run  off  the  track  when  coming  out  of,  or  running 
into  a  snow  drift.  This  is  generally  caused  by 
hard  snow  or  ice  in  the  flanges,  as  the  engine,  on 
being  suddenly  relieved  of  the  weight  of  the 
snow,  easily  mounts  the  rail  on  a  hard  flangeway 
and  runs  off  the  track. 

"  Whenever  the  track  becomes  full  of  snow  in 
the  winter  and  needs  flanging  out,  section  fore- 
men should  take  their  men  and  flange  out  the 
track  at  the  tops  of  the  heaviest  grades  first,  and 
next  at  all  places  on  their  sections  where  it  is 
most  difficult  for  an  engine  to  pull  a  train. 
Those  parts  of  a  section  which  need  flanging 
least,  such  as  high  dumps,  level  track,  or  sags 
between  grades,  should  always  be  left  till  the 
last. 

"  On  roads  where  snow  lies  on  the  ground  dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  section  foremen  should 
open  up  all  ditches,  culverts,  and  other  water 
ways  which  pass  along  or  under  the  track.  Cul- 
verts which  are  apt  to  be  covered  with  snow  in 
the  winter  can  easily  be  located  when  the  thaw 
comes  if  a  long  stake  is  driven  close  to  the  mouth 
of  each  culvert  early  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  be- 
fore any  snow  falls  on  the  ground. 

"In  cuts  that  are  full  of  snow  on  each  side  of 
the  track,  leaving  only  room  enough  for  trains 
to  pass  through,  foremen  should  make  a  ditch  in 
the  snow  when  it  begins  to  melt  in  the  spring, 
about  six  feet  from  the  rails  on  each  side  of  the 
track,  so  that  when  the  water  begins  to  run  it 
will  not  injure  the  track  by  running  over  it. 

"  If  there  are  any  snow  fences  for  protection 
along  cuts,  they  should  be  watched  closely,  and 


OF  WAY.  401 

whenever  a  fence  is  found  which  has  been  drifted 
full  of  snow  or  nearly  so,  a  wall  four  feet  high 
along  the  top  of  the  highest  part  of  the  drift 
should  be  built  with  blocks  of  snow  taken  from 
the  inside  face  of  the  drift.  As  long  as  the 
weather  remains  cool,  a  wall  built  of  blocks  of 
snow  will  give  as  good  protection  to  a  cut  as  the 
same  amount  of  ordinary  snow  fence  would. 
Snow  walls  should  be  made  strong  and  thick  and 
their  height  increased  on  the  worst  cuts  in  pro- 
portion to  the  force  of  men  that  can  be  spared  to 
do  the  work;  double  lines  of  snow  wall,  fifty  feet 
apart,  should  be  used  where  they  will  be  bene- 
ficial. 

"On  the  majority  of  Northern  railroads  the 
amount  of  snow  which  falls  upon  the  ground 
during  the  winter  months  is  not  so  great  as  to 
require  the  building  of  snow  sheds,  but  to  pro- 
tect the  cuts  along  the  track  from  filling  with 
snow,  fences  are  built  along  the  tops  of  the  cuts 
at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  track  to  catch 
the  snow  when  it  is  drifted,  and  prevent  it  from 
being  blown  into  the  cuts  and  blocking  the  track. 
The  efficiency  of  a  snow  fence,  as  a  protection 
against  snow,  depends  on  its  strength,  durability, 
height,  how  far  it  is  from  the  track,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  arranged  along  the  top  of 
the  cuts. 

"A  snow  fence,  no  matter  how  well  made,  or 
of  what  material,  will  rot  and  become  useless  in 
eight  or  ten  years,  at  the  latest.  The  yearly 
cost  of  repairing  snow  fences,  the  first  cost,  and 
the  interest  of  the  money  invested,  should  all  be 

26    Vol.  13 


402      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

considered  before  putting  up  a  snow  fence  on  any 
railroad  cut;  and  where  the  work  of  grading 
down  a  cut  on  each  side  of  the  track,  so  that  it 
will  not  hold  snow,  can  be  done  for  an  amount  of 
money  equal  to  the  cost  of  the  items  above  re- 
ferred to,  the  grading  of  the  cut  should  be  done 
in  preference  to  the  building  of  a  snow  fence. 
In  many  sections  of  the  Northwest  a  cut  which 
is  only  two  or  three  feet  higher  than  the  track 
rails  can  be  graded  from  the  right  of  way  limits 
down  to  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  track 
ties,  and  the  dirt  wasted  on  the  fills  near  at  hand 
for  less  than  it  would  cost  to  maintain  a  snow 
fence  on  the  same  cut. 

"Even  when  the  cost  of  putting  a  cut  into 
such  a  condition  that  it  will  not  hold  snow  is 
somewhat  greater  than  that  of  maintaining  a 
good  snow  fence,  the  difference  is  in  favor  of 
grading,  on  account  of  the  benefit  the  track  de- 
rives from  it.  Snow  fences  are  not  needed  at 
deep  cuts  which  from  their  top  slope  back  into  a 
valley  within  a  short  distance  from  the  side  of 
the  track;  nor  are  snow  fences  much  good  as  a 
protection  where  the  ground  slopes  with  an  in- 
cline off  from  the  track,  unless  the  fence  is  close 
enough  to  carry  the  wind  above  the  cut,  or  catch 
the  snow  before  reaching  the  cut.  Snow  fences 
are  not  needed  on  cuts  where  heavy  timber  or 
underbrush  grows  close  along  each  side  of  the 
track,  the  only  snow  in  such  cuts  being  that 
which  falls  directly  upon  the  track  and  cannot 
be  prevented.  But  where  the  ground  is  level  for 
some  distance  from  the  track,  or  on  a  gently  roll- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  403 

ing  prairie,  cuts  are  liable  to  fill  up  with  snow  if 
not  properly  fenced.  Snow  fences  should  be  set 
up  at  such  a  distance  from  the  track  that  the 
edge  of  the  snow  drift  inside  of  them  will  not 
reach  within  thirty  feet  of  the  track  when  the 
fence  is  drifted  full.  The  fence  should  be  set 
about  eleven  or  twelve  feet  from  the  track  for 
each  foot  in  height  of  fence.  The  height  of 
the  snow  fence  should  regulate  its  distance  from 
the  track.  If  a  snow  fence  is  set  too  far  from 
the  track  for  its  height,  the  wind,  after  passing 
over  the  top  of  the  fence,  soon  strikes  the  ground 
on  the  inside  of  the  fence  and  gathers  all  the 
snow  before  it  into  the  cut,  and  part  of  the  snow 
which  blows  over  the  fence  is  also  carried  upon 
the  track. 

"A  snow  fence  is  seldom  set  up  on  each  side 
of  the  track  unless  the  road  is  so  situated  as  to 
be  exposed  to  storms  from  both  directions. 

"  Storms  from  the  northwest,  north,  and  north- 
east are  the  most  prevalent  throughout  the 
Northwest,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  north 
sides  of  railroads  running  east  and  west,  and  the 
west  sides  of  railroads  on  roads  running  north 
and  south,  need  the  most  protection  from  snow 
and  need  the  most  snow  fence.  Where  two  snow 
fences  are  put  up  on  one  side  of  the  track,  they 
should  run  parallel  with  each  other,  and  there 
should  be  a  space  of  at  least  100  feet  between 
them.  Unless  a  very  large  quantity  of  snow  is 
drifted  the  outside  fence  will  hold  it  all. 

"  Very  good  results  have  been  attained  by  set- 
ing  out  the  snow  fence  next  to  the  track  in  the 


404      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

following  manner:  If  the  snow  fence  is  of  01 
dinary  height,  set  it  up  seventy-five  feet  from 
the  nearest  track  rail.  Enough  of  the  snow  fence 
should  run  parallel  with  the  track  to  reach  the 
full  length  of  the  cut,  no  more.  After  this  part 
of  the  fence  is  up,  a  wing  should  be  turned  on 
each  end  of  it,  approaching  the  track  gradually 
until  the  extreme  end  of  each  wing  extends  100 
feet  beyond  the  end  of  the  cut,  at  a  distance  of 
about  fifty  or  sixty  feet  from  the  track  rail. 

'  When  a  cut  ends  abruptly  on  the  beginning 
of  a  high  fill,  the  wing  on  that  end  of  the  snow 
fence  should  be  turned  in  towards  the  track  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  cut  is  reached,  or  at  least  soon 
enough  to  protect  the  cut  from  a  quartering 
storm.  A  snow  fence  built  parallel  with  the 
track  and  without  a  wing  on  the  end  of  it,  is  of 
very  little  use  when  a  storm  blows  nearly  along 
the  track,  as  most  of  the  snow  on  the  inside  of 
the  fence  is  apt  to  fee  blown  into  the  cut.  New 
ties  which  are  received  for  repair  of  track  the 
following  Spring  can  be  distributed  and  used 
advantageously  to  make  a  temporary  snow  fence 
on  cuts  where  needed.  The  ties  may  be  laid  along 
in  line  with  their  ends  lapping  each  other,  about 
one  foot  slats  or  pieces  of  board  can  then  be  put 
across  the  ends  of  the  ties  where  they  lap  and 
a  new  line  of  ties  laid  along  on  top  of  them  until 
the  snow  fence  is  of  the  proper  height. 

"  Clearing  the  track  of  snow  in  the  winter  be- 
longs to  the  roadmaster's  department.  No  man 
should  be  trusted  with  full  charge  of  a  snow  plow 
outfit  unless  it  be  known  that  he  understands  the 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  405 

best  methods  to  be  employed  in  opening  up  the 
road  for  traffic  after  a  blockade.  The  man  in 
charge  of  a  snow  plow  outfit  should  be  informed, 
of  the  exact  condition  of  the  road,  the  depth  of 
snow,  the  length  of  drifts,  and  the  location  of 
the  same,  as  nearly  as  possible,  before  starting 
on  the  road.  He  should  have  good  live  engines 
and  willing  engineers.  The  plow  itself  should, 
like  the  engine  and  engineer,  be  the  best  that 
can  be  procured  and  of  a  pattern  that  could 
throw  snow  out  of  a  cut  eight  or  ten  feet  deep. 
Small  plows,  fenders,  or  other  makeshifts,  which 
are  only  good  to  clean  the  rails  of  light  snow,  or 
gouge  a  hole  through  a  big  cut  should  be  left  at 
home  and  not  taken  out  to  buck  snow.  When 
there  is  a  large  quantity  of  it  to  be  moved,  the 
extra  time  and  labor  expended  in  shoveling  and 
pulling  such  craft  out  of  the  snow  would  purchase 
a  good  plow  in  one  trip  over  the  road.  Another 
engine  and  car  with  a  conductor,  train  crew  and 
shoveling  gang,  should  follow  close  behind  the 
snow  plow  during  the  day  time,  and  should  be 
coupled  in  behind  the  plow  when  running  after 
dark.  The  second  engine  should  be  used  as  a 
helper  in  striking  deep  snow,  and  to  pull  out  the 
plow  engine  whenever  it  is  stuck  fast  in  a  snow 
drift.  All  cars  attached  to  the  helper  engine 
should  be  left  behind  on  the  clear  track  when 
both  engines  run  together  to  buck  a  drift  of 
snow.  The  pilot  should  be  removed  from  the 
engine  which  is  used  for  a  helper  so  that  a  close 
coupling  can  be  made  when  both  engines  are 
used  together.  The  less  slack  there  is  between 


406       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

two  engines  coupled  together  the  less  liability  is 
there  of  the  hind  engine  pushing  the  front  engine 
off  the  track.  This  is  most  liable  to  happen  on 
a  curve  track,  or  where  hard  snow  is  encountered. 
Two  engines  should  never  be  allowed  to  buck 
snow  with  a  long  car  coupling  between  them  or 
with  a  caboose  or  other  car  between  the  engines, 
as  either  arrangement  endangers  the  lives  of  the 
men  on  the  train  and  often  results  in  a  wreck. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  using  two  engines  be- 
hind the  snow  plow  to  buck  snow  which  one 
engine  can  as  well  throw  out.  If  the  snow  is  not 
too  hard  one  good  heavy  engine  and  plow  will 
clear  the  track  of  a  snow  drift  three  to  five  feet 
deep  and  from  five  to  eight  hundred  feet  in 
length,  at  one  run.* 

"  Two  good  locomotives  coupled  together  be- 
hind the  plow,  managed  properly,  will  remove  any 
snow  which  it  is  advisable  to  buck.  Snow  drifts 
which  are  higher  than  the  plow  cannot  be  cleared 
from  the  track  successfully  without  first  shovel- 
ing the  snow  off  the  top  of  the  drift,  except 
when  the  drift  is  very  short.  Where  the  top  of 
the  snow  drift  is  shoveled  off,  it  should  be  opened 
wide  enough  to  allow  the  plow  to  throw  out  of 
the  cut  the  snow  left  in  it.  On  roads  where  a 
fl anger  is  used  and  made  to  pull  behind  an  engine 
on  a  train,  it  should  be  sent  with  the  snow  plow 

*On  account  of  the  invention  of  the  rotary  snow  plows  it  is 
not  likely  that  snow  plowing  with  a  plow  on  the  front  of  a  loco- 
motive will  be  done  to  any  great  extent  in  the  future,  especially 
where  cuts  are  deep  and  long  and  snow  is  hard.  But  when  the 
snow  is  soft  and  not  too  deep  on  the  track  the  old  way  of  getting 
rid  of  it  is  still  apt  to  be  practiced. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  407 

helper  and  used  to  clean  out  the  snow  left  be- 
tween the  track  rails  by  the  snow  plow.  When 
the  snow  is  reported  hard,  those  in  charge  of 
snow  plow  outfits  should  be  very  careful  to  have 
their  engines  and  plow  in  as  perfect  condition 
as  possible.  They  should  run  no  risk;  every  snow 
drift  should  be  examined  before  running  into  it, 
and  each  end  should  be  shoveled  out  enough  to 
leave  a  clean  flangeway  and  a  face  that  would 
let  the  plow  enter  under  the  snow  and  keep  it 
down  upon  the  rails.  The  tendency  of  hard  snow 
is  to  lift  the  plow  up  over  the  top  of  the  drift 
and  throw  the  engine  off  the  track.  Whenever 
the  ends  of  the  drifts  are  not  faced  as  before 
mentioned  there  is  always  great  danger  when 
entering  or  leaving  short,  shallow  drifts  of  hard 
snow,  while,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  little  or  no 
danger  in  plowing  soft  deep  snow  at  the  greatest 
speed  the  engine  can  make. 

"The  engines  with  a  snow  plow  outfit  should 
always  take  on  water  and  fuel  to  their  full 
capacity  at  every  point  on  the  road  where  a  sup- 
ply can  be  obtained,  no  matter  whether  it  is 
liable  to  be  used  or  not.  When  it  is  at  all  prob- 
able that  progress  will  be  slow  on  account  of 
hard  or  deep  snow,  a  car  loaded  with  coal  should 
be  taken  along  by  the  helper  engine.  If  there  is 
plenty  of  snow  the  supply  of  water  can  easily  be 
made  in  the  engine  tanks  by  commencing  to 
shovel  snow  into  them  before  they  are  more  than 
half  empty. 

"Every  snow  plow,  engine  and  helper  engine 
should  be  supplied  with  a  piece  of  steam  hose 


408       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

which  can  be  attached  to  the  syphon  cock  and 
reach  from  it  to  the  water  hole  in  the  back  of 
the  tank.  With  this  hose  an  engine  steaming 
well  can  quickly  make  a  full  tank  of  water  from 
snow  shoveled  into  the  tank.  It  is  also  useful  to 
thaw  out  the  machinery  or  clean  the  track  rails 
of  ice. 

"In  plowing  snow  the  length  of  runs  and  the 
speed  of  the  engine  should  always  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  depth  and  length  of  the  snow  drifts. 
If  the  drifts  are  deep  and  long  and  likely  to  stick 
the  plow,  a  good  long  run  should  be  taken  on  the 
clear  track  so  that  the  plow  engine  may  acquire 
its  greatest  speed  before  striking  the  drift.  A 
good  engineer  who  has  had  some  practice  in 
bucking  snow  will  so  handle  his  engine  that  very 
little  shoveling  by  the  men  will  be  needed. 

"It  is  not  advisable  to  start  out  on  the  road 
with  a  snow  plow  outfit  during  a  heavy  storm, 
but  everything  should  be  ready  to  make  a  start 
as  soon  as  the  storm  is  over.  The  snow  plow 
should  be  attached  to  the  best  and  heaviest  en- 
gine in  service  on  the  division  where  it  is  used. 

"The  man  in  charge  of  a  snow  plow  outfit 
should  use  his  best  judgment  and  have  his  wits 
about  him  at  all  times,  that  he  may  not  be  caught 
on  the  road  with  a  dead  engine  or  be  wrecked,  and 
block  the  road  for  other  trains.  It  is  much  bet- 
ter for  the  Company's  interests  and  those  of  all 
others  concerned  when  all  accidents  are  avoided, 
even  should  it  take  much  longer  time  to  open  up 
the  road. 

"The  engineer  of  the  snow  plow  engine  should 
sound  the  whistle  frequently  when  approaching 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  409 

a  cut,  so  that  section  men  if  working  there  will 
be  warned  in  time  to  get  out  of  the  cut.  When 
the  snow  plow  is  making  repeated  runs  for  a  big 
snow  drift,  the  signal  to  come  ahead  should  never 
be  given  until  all  the  snow  shovelers  have  left 
the  cut.  It  is  very  difficult  for  men  to  climb  out 
of  a  cut  where  the  snow  is  deep,  and  many  acci- 
dents have  occurred  where  approaching  trains 
have  failed  to  warn  the  men  in  time,  or  where 
the  men  have  neglected  to  look  out  for  the  dan- 
ger until  it  was  too  late.  If  the  men  with  the 
snow  plow  are  always  on  the  alert  and  careful 
and  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties, 
the  safety  of  all  concerned  will  be  assured  and 
the  work  will  progress  rapidly. 

'  When  a  snow  drift  is  so  long  and  deep  that 
it  may  stick  the  snow  plow  twice,  the  best  policy 
is  to  shovel  out  snow  enough  from  the  approach 
end  of  the  drift  to  enable  the  snow  plow  to  go 
through  in  the  second  run.  In  this  way  the  labor 
of  digging  out  the  engine  a  second  time  may  be 
avoided. 

"All  very  hard  snow  should  be  broken  up  by 
the  men  and  the  crust  thrown  out  before  striking 
it  with  a  snow  plow.  The  shock  felt  when  a 
snow  plow  strikes  a  hard  drift  is  sometimes  very 
great  and  often  damages  the  machinery  or  knocks 
the  plow  from  the  track.  The  force  of  concus- 
sion may  be  materially  lessened  by  having  the 
men  clean  a  good  flange  way,  and  then  shovel 
out  of  the  face  and  top  of  the  drift  enough  snow 
to  make  a  gradual  incline  of  about  one  foot  to 
the  rod.  Besides  reducing  the  force  of  the  shock 


410       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  above  method  of  preparing  a  hard  snow  drift 
enables  the  snow  plow  to  open  a  much  greater 
distance  at  a  run.* 

Snow  Plows.  The  Rotary  snow  plow  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  344.  The  leading  features  of  the 
'Rotary'  are: 

1.  The   machinery   of    the   Rotary   is   much 
simpler,  very  much  stronger,  and  is  better  ad- 
apted for  the  work  it  has  to  perform  than  that 
of  any  other  steam  snow  plow  or  excavator. 

2.  The  machinery  of  the  Rotary  is  underneath 
the  floor  of  the  pilot  house  and  cab,  and  is  se- 
curely fastened  to  the  extra  heavy  steel  and  iron 
frame  which  carries  the  machine,  and  is  so  cov- 
ered with  iron  plates  as  to  secure  absolute  safety 
to  those  operating  it. 

3.  Owing  to  the  perfect  mechanical  principles 
upon  which  the  Rotary  is  constructed,  its  weight 
is  properly  distributed  over  its  trucks  and  varies 
but  a  few  thousand  pounds  when  in  working  order. 

4.  The  Rotary  is  the  only  steam  snow  plow 
which  has  a  perfect  working    ice   cutter  and 
flanger  which  will  absolutely  protect  it  from  de- 
railment by  snow  or  ice. 

5.  The  Rotary  is  the  only  steam  snow  plow 
which  cuts  the  snow  from   the  bank  and  dis- 
charges the  same  at  a  single  revolution. 

6.  The  Rotary  is  the  only  steam  snow  plow 
ever  operated  which  has  not  spread  the  rails  and 
broken  down  bridges,  and  is   consequently  the 
only  steam   snow  plow  which   can   be  run  out 
ahead  of  trains  with  safety. 

*"  The  Trackman's  Helper."    Kindelan,  pp.  240-253. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT. 


411 


6  QQ 

HH 

« 

1 


412       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Seasons9  Work.  "As  to  the  seasons  for  doing 
the  different  kinds  of  work,  it  may  be  said  that 
general  improvements,  tile  drainage,  reballasting, 
etc.,  can  best  be  carried  on  from  late  spring  to 
late  autumn,  but  all  such  work  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  planned  and  arranged  for  beforehand, 
so  that  the  track  may  not  be  disturbed  for  re- 
ballasting  just  after  the  section  gang  has  com- 
pleted a  thorough  surfacing.  Work  trains  and 
floating  gangs  for  ditching,  ballasting,  widening 
cuts,  etc.,  and  special  gangs  on  new  interlocking 
plants,  rearrangement  of  yards,  repairing  or 
building  structures,  etc.,  may  be  worked  at  any 
time  from  the  end  of  one  winter  to  the  beginning 
of  another.  For  the  ordinary  work  on  the  sec- 
tions no  set  rules  or  program  of  procedure  can 
be  formulated,  as  the  requirements  vary  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  country.  In  general,  how- 
ever, the  year  may  be  divided  into  four  seasons, 
and  the  work  done  during  these  seasons  prac- 
tically as  outlined  below: 

Spring.  "As  soon  as  the  winter  is  over,  all 
likelihood  of  snow  past,  and  the  frost  coming 
out  of  the  ground,  the  work  of  reducing  and  re- 
moving the  shims  should  be  commenced.  The 
frost  will,  of  course,  remain  longer  in  the  road- 
bed in  cuts  than  on  exposed  banks.  Low  joints 
must  be  raised,  spikes  driven,  bolts  tightened, 
cattle  guards  and  road  crossings  cleared  and  re- 
paired, ditches  cleaned,  fences  repaired,  portable 
snow  fences  taken  down  and  piled,  rubbish  and 
old  material  cleared  from  the  right  of  way,  and 
the  necessary  lining  and  surfacing  done  to  put 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  413 

the  track  in  good  condition  previous  to  the  more 
extensive  work  later  in  the  season.  At  the  same 
time  sign  posts  and  telegraph  poles  are  straight- 
ened, fences  repaired,  and  side  tracks  and  yards 
overhauled.  The  gang  (if  not  already  increased) 
is  then  increased  to  its  maximum  number  and 
the  work  of  renewing  ties  is  commenced,  the 
ties  having  been  previously  distributed  on  the 
section.  About  four  days  a  week  should  be  spent 
in  putting  in  the  ties,  all  ties  being  fully  tamped 
as  soon  as  they  are  in  place.  The  other  two  days 
are  spent  on  other  necessary  work.  On  some 
roads  the  tie  renewals  are  done  quickly  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season,  while  on  others  this 
work  is  spread  out  through  the  season.  The 
former  is  by  far  the  better  plan,  as  the  continued 
disturbance  resulting  from  the  latter  plan  is  very 
detrimental  to  the  maintenance  of  good  track. 
When  the  ties  are  all  in,  the  work  of  thorough 
lining  and  surfacing  preparatory  for  the  heavy 
summer  traffic  is  commenced.  The  lining  is  done 
first  on  account  of  the  bad  line  resulting  from 
the  tie  renewals,  but  the  surfacing  should  follow 
very  closely.  The  gauging  is  done  at  the  same 
time.  Ballasting  is  done  after  the  new  ties  have 
been  put  in.  In  surfacing,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  raise  the  track  too  much,  but  only  to  give 
a  uniform  surface,  the  track  being  raised  out  of 
a  face  only  about  once  in  four  or  five  years. 

Summer.  "  Besides  the  work  of  surfacing,  rail 
renewals  may  be  done  at  any  convenient  time 
between  spring  and  winter.  The  new  rails  are 
sometimes  laid  before  the  ties  are  renewed,  but 


414      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

it  is  better  to  put  the  ties  in  first  and  have  them 
thoroughly  tamped  up,  especially  if  there  are 
many  bad  ties.  A  general  inspection  of  spikes, 
bolts,  nuts  and  nutlocks  is  then  to  be  made.  All 
worn,  bent,  broken  or  improperly  driven  spikes 
are  removed,  the  holes  plugged,  and  new  spikes 
are  driven.  Broken  or  loose  bolts  are  made  good. 
Switches  and  switch  connections,  frogs,  guard 
rails,  etc.,  need  to  be  carefully  inspected  and  re- 
paired. As  fast  as  the  regular  surfacing  is  com- 
pleted, the  ballast  should  be  dressed  to  the  stan- 
dard cross-section,  and  the  toe  of  slope  lined  to 
a  'grass  line'  about  5  feet  6  inches  from  the 
rail.  Tile  drainage,  correction  of  signs,  and 
general  work  not  interfering  with  the  track  itself 
can  best  be  done  during  the  summer.  Spare 
time  can  also  be  spent  in  trimming  up  yard 
tracks,  and  clearing  yards  and  station  grounds. 

Autumn.  "Weeds  should  be  cut  at  least  once 
a  year  and  the  best  time  for  this  is  just  before 
seeding.  The  grass  on  the  right  of  way  should 
be  mowed,  bushes  cleared  and  trimmed,  and  in 
cases  where  fires  cause  trouble,  a  fire  guard  may  be 
formed  by  plowing  a  narrow  strip  about  50  feet 
on  each  side  from  the  track.  Burnt  or  decayed 
trees  likely  to  fall  near  the  track  should  also  be  re- 
moved, and  the  dry  brush,  old  ties,  etc.,  may  now 
be  burned.  Old  material  should  also  be  cleared 
up.  About  a  month  before  the  commencement 
of  the  winter  or  rainy  season,  a  general  surfacing, 
lining,  gauging  and  dressing  of  the  track  should 
be  done  starting  at  the  farther  end  of  the  section 
and  working  steadily  to  the  other  end.  The 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  415 

track  itself  should  be  put  in  condition  at  the 
same  time  and  the  spikes  and  joints  seen  to. 
When  this  is  done  ditching  must  be  undertaken, 
the  ditches  being  cleaned  out  and  improved 
where  necessary  to  give  the  necessary  width  and 
grade.  The  more  thoroughly  this  work  is  done 
the  better  will  the  track  be  during  the  winter. 
Trenches  should  also  be  cut  under  switch  rods  to 
prevent  water  or  snow  collecting  around  them 
and  freezing.  The  culverts  and  waterways  must 
then  be  cleared  of  brush  and  obstructions,  and 
any  signs  of  scour  or  undermining  looked  for, while 
streams  should  be  examined  above  and  below  the 
culverts  and  any  obstructions  removed.  After  this 
there  is  plenty  of  work  to  be  done  in  cutting 
and  burning  weeds,  repairing  fences,  repairing 
and  erecting  snow  fences,  and  stacking  additional 
portable  snow  fences  where  they  will  be  needed. 
Track  signs  and  telegraph  poles  have  to  be  in- 
spected and  cattle  guards  and  crossings  cleaned 
up.  Yards  and  side  tracks  may  be  profitably 
cleaned,  drained,  leveled  up  and  repaired  before 
the  snow  falls. 

Winter.  "The  winter  work  with  reduced  track 
forces  is  largely  that  of  inspecting  the  track  and 
making  small  repairs;  also  looking  after  the 
spikes,  bolts,  frogs  and  switches.  Such  work  will 
occupy  the  time  between  snow  storms  or  in  fine 
weather.  During  snow  storms  the  switches,  frogs 
and  guard  rail  flangeways  must  be  kept  clear 
as  also  all  signal  and  interlocking  connections. 
Salt  is  used  to  melt  the  snow  but  oil  afterwards 
should  be  applied  to  all  moving  parts,  such  as  slide 


416        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

plates,  bell  crank  levers,  etc.,  as  the  salt  water 
has  a  tendency  to  rust  the  iron,  making  the  parts 
move  hard.  In  heavy  snow  storms  the  section  men 
must  work  in  clearing  the  track  and  help  the 
snow  gang  or  shovel ers.  In  the  intervals  of  fine 
weather  rails,  ties,  lumber,  fence  material,  etc., 
may  be  distributed,  ready  for  spring  work.  Heav- 
ing of  the  track  by  frost  has  now  to  be  expected, 
and  proper  precautions  must  be  taken  to  keep 
the  track  in  surface  by  shimming,  while  in  very 
bad  places  blocking  may  be  necessary.  The 
ditches  should  be  examined  as  soon  as  any  thaw 
sets  in,  and  kept  clear  of  ice  or  packed  snow,  so 
as  to  allow  free  passage  for  the  water."* 

Changing  Rails.  On  roads  having  heavy  traffic, 
it  is  customary  to  change  rails  on  Sundays,  pre- 
paring the  track  on  week  days.  On  roads  with 
light  traffic,  rails  can  be  changed  at  any  time. 
One  side  of  the  track  should  be  changed  at  a  time. 

Preparing  Track  Material  for  Sunday  Work. 
Rails  and  splices  generally  require  to  be  filed 
on  the  ends  to  a  uniform  surface,  so  as  to  remove 
projections;  this  work  is  therefore  included  in 
preparing  the  track,  though  properly  speaking  it 
should  be  done  at  the  mill.  The  following  is  the 
organization  of  men  for  such  work,  namely:  The 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  put  four  men  on  the 
car  of  splices,  two  on  each  end,  to  file  and  inspect 
the  splices,  each  man  having  a  small  bench  to  lay 
the  splice  on  to  facilitate  the  filing;  after  they 
are  filed  they  should  be  thrown  on  a  car,  laying 
them  at  right  angles  to  each  other  the  full  length 
of  the  splice;  this  will  facilitate  their  being 

*' 'Railway  Track  and  Track  Work."  Tratman,  pp.  288-289. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  417 

counted.  When  the  men  have  sufficient  room  on 
the  car  they  are  filing  on,  they  should  pile  the 
splices  behind  them  in  like  manner.  Rails, 
splices,  bolts,  nut  locks  and  plugs  should  be  dis- 
tributed at  the  same  time  as  the  rails.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  have  half  of  the  cars  which  are 
loaded  with  rails  turned  on  a  turntable  or  Y 
block  to  admit  of  their  being  unloaded,  with  the 
brand  on  the  outside  of  the  rails  as  they  will  be 
put  in  the  track. 

Unloading  Rails.  Care  should  be  exercised  in 
unloading  rails.  Rails,  on  gondola  cars  espe- 
cially, should  be  let  down  to  the  ground  on  skids, 
and  each  skid  should  be  provided  with  a  pulley 
on  the  upper  end,  placed  below  its  surface;  a 
rope  with  a  hook  sufficiently  large  to  receive  a 
rail  should  be  used  through  this  pulley  for  lower- 
ing the  rails  to  the  ground;  each  skid  should  be 
provided  at  its  lower  end  with  a  round  iron  pro- 
jection, around  which  the  rope  is  turned  for  the 
purpose  of  controlling  the  rails  while  being  low- 
ered. Two  men  on  the  ground,  operating  the 
ropes  raise  the  hooks  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
skids,  when  one  foreman  and  twelve  men  (hand- 
ling seventy-six-pound  rails)  will  place  the  rail 
in  the  hooks  and  lower  the  same  to  the  ground. 
The  first  named  two  men,  in  addition  to  lowering 
these  rails,  will  lift  the  skids  as  the  car  is  moved 
ahead.  On  another  car  are  the  rails  for  the  other 
side  of  the  track,  the  men  being  similarly  organ- 
ized. Unloading  a  rail  on  each  side  prevents 
moving  the  train  so*often  and  obviates  the  men 
passing  from  one  car  to  another.  Time  may  be 
saved  by  unloading  two  rails  from  each  car  be- 
fore moving  the  train  ahead,  unloading  the  next 
two  rails  one  rail  length  ahead  of  tho  last  two. 

27    Vol.  13 


418      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Two  men  on  the  splice  car  will  distribute  the 
splices,  bolts  and  nut  locks,  and  two  men  with  a 
basket  will  distribute  the  plugs  from  the  supply 
car. 

Filing  Rails,  Etc.     As  soon  as  the  rails  are  un- 
loaded, men  should  be  set  at  work  to  file  the 
ends  of  the  rails  underneath  the  heads  and  up- 
per side  of  the  base.    After  the  rails  are  unloaded, 
the  men  should  be  organized  as  follows,  namely: 
One  foreman  and  eight  men  with  tongs  should 
string  the  rails  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  ties; 
one  man  with  an  adze  should  level  any  project- 
ing ends  of  same,  and  one  man  should  tack-spike 
all  unspliced  ends  of  each  four  rails.    For  six- 
bolted  splices,  six  men  should  bolt  the  rails  and 
lay  the  splices,  bolts  and  nut  locks  at  each  un- 
spliced end.    Four  men  should  remove  all  the 
bolts  that  can  be  removed  with  safety  from  the 
rails  in  the  track;  these  men  should  also  put  the 
nut  locks,  or  washers  and  nuts,  on  each  bolt  as  it 
is  removed.    Four  men  should  pull  the  spikes 
that  can  be  pulled  with  safety,  those  remaining 
being  left  slightly  started.    On  tangents,  four 
spikes  to  each  rail  are  sufficient  to  leave  unpulled, 
leaving  one  of  these  spikes  at  each  joint;   on 
curves,  six  spikes  to  the  rail  should  be  left,  and 
one  in  the  slot  hole.    These  spikes  should  be 
pulled  on  the  inside  when  the  same  sized  rails 
are  to  be  used,  and  when  of  different  base,  the  in- 
side of  one  rail  and  outside  of  the  other  should 
be  pulled,  which  will  admit  of  their  being  laid 
retaining  the  same  gauge.    When  pulling  spikes 
on  curves,  they  should  be  pulled  on  the  side  hav- 
ing the  ties  cut  down  the  least,  which  will  more 
readily  admit  of  ties  being  adzed.    Four  men 
should  be  at  work  score-adzing  each  tie  on  the 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  419 

side  from  which  the  spikes  are  removed,  keeping 
well  on  the  outside  of  the  spikes.  As  each  sub- 
gang  finishes  its  work,  it  should  clear  the  ballast 
between  the  ties  and  underneath  the  rails;  the 
other  foreman  should  look  after  the  sub-gangs, 
except  rail  stringers.  Two  boys  should  be  en- 
gaged in  carrying  water  for  the  men.  In  all, 
forty  men  will  prepare  in  the  above  manner  one 
mile  of  track  per  day.  On  double  track,  one 
track  should  be  used  to  distribute  from,  allowing 
schedule  trains  to  pass  on  the  other,  flagging  all 
other  trains  and  allowing  them  to  pass  as  they 
arrive.* 

Jointing  Rails.  As  it  is  impossible  to  change 
rails  and  have  them  joint  on  the  old  ties,  it  is 
necessary  that  these  ties  be  changed  to  admit  of 
the  slot  holes  being  spiked,  and  thus  prevent  the 
rails  from  running. 

Moving  Old  Track.  Improvements  of  line, 
especially  double  tracking,  when  the  old  line  is 
being  improved  at  the  same  time,  render  it  neces- 
sary to  either  take  up  and  relay  the  old  track  or 
move  it  over  to  the  new  line.  When  the  change 

*  GANG  FOR  CHANGING  RAILS  ON  SUNDAY.— The  same  gang  of 
men  that  prepared  the  track  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  per  day  will 
change  the  rails  at  the  same  rate,  organized  as  follows,  namely; 

Men  removing  bolts 4 

Men  throwing  out  rails 2 

Men  adzing  ties 13 

Men  spiking  rails,  joint  slot  holes,  quarters  and  centers 4 

Foremen 2 

Men  pully^g  spikes 4 

Men  plugging  spike  holes 2 

Man  guiding  and  testing  adzing  with  single-headed  spotting 

boards  with  face  one-half  inch  broad 1 

Water  boys 2 

As  adzing  is  more  or  less  on  account  of  ties  being  cut  into, 
these  men  will  require  to  be  increased  or  diminished  accord- 
ingly. The  remainder  of  the  spiking  can  be  done  by  this  gang 
the  next  dav,  as  well  as  tamping  up  all  ties  that  are  loose  or  low, 
especially  the  joint  ties.  They  should  also  go  over  all  bolts  with 
wrenches  and  tighten  them  up. 


420        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

of  line  is  within  twenty  feet  throw,  it  is  cheaper 
to  move  the  track  than  to  take  it  up  and  relay. 
This  work,  like  changing  rails,  is  usually  done  on 
Sundays.  It  is,  however,  possible  to  be  done  in 
the  week,  if  there  is  an  occasional  half  hour  or  so 
between  trains.  It  requires  skill  and  scientific 
ability. 

Proper  Care  of  Engineers'  Stakes.  Grade 
stakes  set  by  engineers  for  top  of  rail  for  new 
line  should  be  set  so  as  to  be  clear  of  the  track 
when  it  is  being  moved  to  place.  If,  however, 
the  same  grade  is  to  be  retained,  the  foreman  in 
charge  should  put  two  intelligent  men  to  trans- 
ferring the  level  of  the  lower  rail,  using  a  long 
straight  edge  and  track  level  for  this  purpose. 
The  engineers'  center  line  stakes  are  liable  to  be 
in  different  positions  relative  to  the  old  track  to 
be  moved,  necessitating  the  latter  passing  over 
these  stakes  in  many  cases.  In  order  to  obviate 
as  much  as  possible  the  liability  of  their  being 
moved,  they  should  be  driven  sufficiently  low  to 
clear  the  bottom  of  the  rail.  Another  manner  of 
dealing  with  these  stakes  is  to  pull  the  spikes  out 
of  each  tie  surrounding  the  same,  so  as  to  allow 
of  the  track  being  moved  and  leave  those  ties  un- 
touched. This,  however  entails  considerable  ex- 
pense. Another  manner  of  dealing  with  these 
stakes  is  to  transfer  them  so  as  to  be  entirely 
clear  of  the  track  when  moving.  Too  great  care 
cannot  be  taken  with  these  stakes,  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  lining  and  surfacing  of  the  track  so 
changed. 

Preparing  Track  for  Sunday  Work.  The  bed 
for  the  track  on  a  new  line  should  be  ballasted 
and  leveled  off  on  tangents,  and  elevated  on 
curves  so  that  the  bed  will  be  within  two  inches 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  421 

of  the  bottom  of  the  ties.  It  is  necessary  to  pre- 
pare this  bed  with  more  than  ordinary  care,  so 
that  when  the  track  is  moved  over  to  its  new 
position  trains  can  be  allowed  to  pass  with- 
out the  necessity  of  holding  them  until  the 
track  is  tamped.  All  trains,  however  should 
run  slowly  over  this  track.  When  old  track  is  to 
be  thrown  entirely  clear  of  the  old  bed,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  dig  it  put  between  the  ties,  but  only 
to  loosen  it  up  with  a  pick,  so  as  to  make  it 
easier  to  throw.  This  loosening  might  be  omit- 
ted, but  in  that  case  it  would  take  half  as  many 
more  men  to  pull  the  track  out  of  the  old  bed. 
If  old  track  is  to  be  thrown  less  than  the  length 
of  a  tie,  the  part  occupying  the  old  bed  should  be 
dug  out  slightly  below  the  bed  of  the  ties,  and 
the  remainder  loosened  with  a  pick.  This  being 
done,  the  track  is  ready  to  be  thrown. 

Moving  the  Track  on  Sunday.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  good  judgment  be  used  in  determining 
what  amount  of  track  can  be  moved  to  allow  ne- 
cessary trains  to  pass  without  being  held,  and 
also  to  determine  the  proper  place  to  cut  the 
track  so  as  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  pulling  it 
longitudinally  more  than  one  foot  each  way.  The 
men  may  be  divided  into  sub-gangs  of  not  more 
than  thirty  men  with  two  foremen  each,  and  a 
certain  piece  of  track  allotted  to  them.  This 
number  of  men  will  admit  of  being  divided,  us- 
ing one  gang  behind  the  other  in  throwing  the 
track,  or  have  one  surfacing  while  the  other  is 
finishing  the  lining  and  surfacing  later.  When 
throwing  the  track  it  should  not  be  moved  more 
than  twelve  inches  at  any  time;  this  saves  the 
rails  and  splices  and  prevents  twisting  the  ties. 
Rail  cuts,  to  allow  for  expansion  or  contraction, 


422      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

should  be  at  the  center  of  curves,  or  at  as  many 
more  places  as  the  degree  of  the  curve  and  dis- 
tance to  be  thrown  render  necessary.  Not  less 
than  six  men  should  be  placed  at  each  cut,  so  as 
to  employ  three  in  cutting  rails  and  three  drill- 
ing; they  should  first  remove  the  splices  from 
two  joints,  one  on  each  rail,  and  pull  the  spikes 
on  the  sides  opposite  to  which  the  track  is  thrown 
so  that  the  ties  will  be  taken  along  as  the  track  is 
moved.  In  order  to  pass  trains  after  curves  have 
been  moved,  the  line  should  be  changed  on  the 
tangents  by  reversed  curve.  When  the  track  is 
in  place,  two  men  in  each  gang  with  sledge  ham- 
mers should  be  put  at  work  tapping  the  ties  to 
proper  space  and  square  to  the  rail.  Track  in 
cinder  may  be  tamped  only  with  shovels  and 
tamped  with  bars  later,  after  it  has  consolidated. 
To  Move  Track  During  the  Week.  After  the 
track  is  prepared,  it  is  necessary  to  know  how 
much  shorter  or  longer  it  will  be  when  moved. 
This  can  be  ascertained  by  setting  temporary 
stakes.  They  should  be  placed  on  the  line  of 
rail  where  its  position  will  be  when  changed, 
measuring  along  this  new  line  to  the  similar 
rail  of  the  old  track,  after  which  this  latter 
rail  should  be  measured  between  the  same  points; 
thus  the  difference  between  them  is  obtained. 
This  can  only  be  done  correctly  by  using  a  steel 
tape.  When  moving  track  during  warm  weather, 
the  track  to  be  changed  should  be  first  exam- 
ined, and  for  every  tight  or  close  joint  one- 
eighth  inch  allowed  for  expansion;  the  sum  of 
these  allowances  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  ascertaining  the  difference  between  the 
two  rails.  The  rails  should  then  be  cut  and 
drilled  ready  for  use.  When  the  time  selected 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  423 

to  make  the  change  arrives,  and  the  last  sched- 
ule train  has  passed,  gangs  should  begin  to 
throw  the  track,  always  throwing  toward  the 
point  or  points  cut  loose.  As  soon  as  the  throw- 
ing of  the  track  is  started,  the  rails  at  these 
points  are  replaced  by  those  already  cut.  When 
the  track  is  finally  thrown  to  position,  the  ends 
can  be  spliced  and  bolted. 

Policing.  "This  work  includes  the  general 
maintenance  of  the  roadway  in  neat  and  proper 
condition,  and  is  to  be  attended  to  continually. 
Weeds  must  be  kept  cut  and  trimmed  to  the  grass- 
line;  ballast  properly  dressed  and  sloped;  ditches 
cleaned;  rubbish  picked  up,  and  spare  mate- 
rial properly  placed.  Combustible  material  must 
be  kept  cleared  from  around  bridges,  trestles, 
signal  posts,  etc.,  dirt  and  gravel  must  be  re- 
moved from  bridge  seats  and  trestle  caps,  and 
care  taken  to  prevent  ballast  from  working  over 
onto  the  bridge  abutments  or  falling  into  streets 
below.  Large  loose  stones  may  be  neatly  piled 
around  the  bases  of  signal  posts,  sign  posts,  etc., 
to  keep  vegetation  from  growing.  All  trees  that 
are  in  danger  of  falling  on  the  track,  or  that  in- 
terfere wrth  the  passage  of  trains,  or  obscure  the 
view  must  be  removed  or  trimmed.  If  they  are 
on  private  land,  and  the  owners  object  to  such 
work,  a  report  must  be  made  as  to  the  circum- 
stances. Any  interference  with  or  obstruction 
of  ditches,  culverts,  etc.,  by  land  owners  must  be 
prevented  or  a  report  made  thereon. 

"All  old  track  material,  links  and  pins,  or 
other  material  from  cars,  old  ties,  rubbish,  etc., 
must  be  picked  up  and  removed  from  the  track, 


424        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS.. 

all  scrap  being  carried  to  the  section  tool  house 
to  be  properly  sorted  and  properly  disposed  of. 
All  scrap  iron,  lumber,  etc.,  must  be  neatly  piled 
on  platforms.  New  material,  such  as  rails,  ties, 
etc.,  must  be  properly  piled  or  stacked,  and  no 
material  should  be  thus  piled  within  eight  feet  of 
the  track. 

"  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  a  neat  and  tidy 
appearance  of  the  section,  with  track  full  spiked 
and  bolted,  switches  cleaned  and  well  oiled, 
cattle  guards  and  road  crossings  in  good  condi- 
tion, fences  in  repair  and  wing  fences  at  cattle 
guards  kept  whitewashed,  ballast  evenly  and 
uniformly  sloped  and  free  from  weeds,  sod  line 
cleanly  cut  at  foot  of  slopes,  and  grass  and  weeds 
not  allowed  to  grow  too  high  before  cutting. 
Side  tracks  in  yards  should  also  be  kept  free 
from  weeds  and  rubbish,  old  paper,  scrap,  etc. 
Station  grounds  also  must  be  kept  neat.  Signs 
must  be  upright  and  in  good  repair.  Section 
houses  must  be  clean  and  tidy  with  tools,  track 
material,  scrap,  etc.,  properly  sorted  and  placed. 

"Every  possible  means,  consistent  with  gen- 
eral attention  to  track  work,  should  be  taken  to 
keep  people  from  walking  on  or  at  the  side  of 
the  track,  and  from  using  the  railway  as  a  public 
path.  This  is  specially  necessary  near  cities 
where  the  traffic  is  heavy.  In  such  cases  where 
people  habitually  walk  on  the  track,  a  liberal 
covering  of  coarse  broken  stone  or  slag,  or  even 
cinders  may  be  laid  upon  the  ballast  between  the 
rails  and  tracks  and  upon  the  berme  at  the  edge 
of  the  roadway.  This  will  soon  drive  off  those 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  425 

persons  who  cannot  comfortably  walk  on  the  ties. 
This  matter  is  far  too  often  neglected,  and  rail- 
ways are  themselves  partly  responsible  for  the 
habit  which  the  public  has  acquired  of  treating 
the  tracks  as  a  public  way. 

Station  Grounds  and  Buildings.  "In  order  to 
have  a  good  reputation  for  the  road  on  the  part 
of  the  public,  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  grounds 
at  stations  should  be  kept  clean  and  tidy  and  free 
from  rubbish.  On  some  roads  this  work  is  dele- 
gated to  the  station  agent,  wlio  has  his  men 
attend  to  it,  while  on  other  roads  it  is  part  of  the 
section  gang's  work.  The  latter  is  the  better 
plan  if  the  force  is  sufficient  and  the  work  is  done 
by  direction  of  the  roadmaster,  the  station  agent 
not  being  given  authority  to  employ  the  section 
men  for  this  purpose  when  he  thinks  proper.  On 
roads  having  stations  with  lawns,  flowerbeds  and 
nice  grounds,  a  special  force  is  sometimes  kept  to 
attend  to  them.  For  instance  the  Boston  and 
Albany  Railway  has  on  each  of  its  principal  di- 
visions a  gardener  with  5  to  12  men  who  grade, 
plant  and  seed  the  grounds,  and  take  care  of 
them.  These  men  cut  the  grass  with  lawn 
mowers  and  do  the  weeding,  trimming  of  shrub- 
bery, etc.  They  also  attend  to  places  where  the 
banks  are  graded  and  seeded.  This  force  is  in- 
cluded in  the  roadway  department.  The  Penn- 
sylvania Railway  also  employs  landscape  en- 
gineers and  a  large  force  of  gardeners  and  spends 
large  sums  of  money  in  making  and  maintaining 
attractive  grounds.  As  a  result  it  has  a  reputa- 
tion for  the  appearance  of  its  stations.  Some 


426       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

western  roads  including  the  Fremont,  Elkhorn  & 
Missouri  Valley  Railway  have  adopted  the  policy 
of  making  a  "park"  at  most  of  the  stations,  sod- 
ding the  ground  and  planting  trees.  It  is  speci- 
ally important  to  have  attractive  grounds  and 
pleasant  surroundings  at  important  stations  and 
at  junctions  where  passengers  may  have  to 
change  trains  or  to  stop  over  for  connecting 
trains. 

"In  all  ordinary  cases,  however,  much  may  be 
done  by  foremen  and  station  agents  who  are  not 
averse  to  putting  in  a  little  time  in  improving  the 
appearance  of  the  station  grounds.  The  agent 
especially  should  see  that  the  grounds  and  plat- 
forms are  kept  free  from  old  papers  and  other 
rubbish.  A  plot  of  turf,  cinder  or  gravel  path- 
way, a  flowerbed,  a  creeper  on  the  building  or  on 
a  pile  of  rock  work,  can  be  had  with  little  trouble 
and  have  a  great  effect  upon  the  general  appear- 
ance of  a  station.  The  approaches  and  surround- 
ings on  the  town  side  of  the  station  should  be 
cared  for  as  well  as  the  grounds  on  the  railway 
side.  The  platforms  should  be  convenient  and  in 
good  repair  and  the  fences  kept  in  repair.  Many 
a  division  superintendent  and  roadmaster  can  aid 
materially  in  maintaining  a  good  appearance  along 
the  road  by  fitting  up  a  car  with  brake  pumps 
and  paint  tanks  for  painting  by  compressed  air, 
the  work  being  done  rapidly  and  economically  by 
a  few  men,  and  being  applicable  to  stations, 
freight-sheds,  ice-houses,  pump  houses,  section 
houses,  signal  houses,  signal  towers,  cabins,  sta- 
tion fences,  signal  posts,  and  signs,  etc.,  and  also 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  427 

for  whitewashing  cattle  guard  fences,  interior  of 
sheds,  etc. 

"The  yards,  spaces  between  the  tracks,  etc.  at 
stations  should  be  neatly  leveled,  and  covered 
with  ashes,  and  should  be  kept  in  order  by  the 
section  men,  but  strict  rules  should  be  made  and 
enforced  against  the  scattering  of  ashes  and  cin- 
ders from  engines  (which  should  be  dumped  at 
specified  points)  the  sweeping  of  rubbish  and  dirt 
from  the  station  onto  the  track,  and  the  sweep- 
ing out  of  refuse  and  dirt  from  the  cars  upon  the 
track.  Every  station  should  have  a  can  or  bin 
for  waste  paper  and  rubbish  which  should  be 
emptied  at  intervals  into  a  dirt  car;  similar  re- 
ceptacles should  be  provided  at  yards  or  places 
where  cars  are  cleaned.  At  large  terminal  yards 
one  man  may  be  kept  busy  cleaning  up  paper 
and  rubbish.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  station 
inspectors  to  see  that  the  stations,  waiting  rooms, 
closets,  etc.,  are  kept  in  proper  and  sanitary  con- 
dition, and%that  the  grounds  are  properly  cared 
for.  Cleanliness  should  be  enforced  in  every 
case,  but  the  standard  of  appearance  will,  of 
course,  vary  according  to  the  financial  condition 
of  the  road  and  the  size  of  the  force.  The  same 
is  true  of  section  boarding  houses  and  tool 
houses. 

Old  Material.  "In  all  renewals  and  the  period- 
ical policing  of  the  track,  cleaning  up  of  yards, 
etc.,  it  mast  be  borne  in  mind  that  new  material 
must  be  properly  used  and  cared  for,  and  not 
wasted,  and  also  that  no  old  material  should  be 
simply  thrown  away  as  useless.  Even  if  really 


428        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

useless  for  railway  purposes,  the  material  in  the 
aggregate  has  a  certain  selling  value,  which,  if 
the  material  is  thrown  away,  is  wrongfully  lost 
to  the  Company.  These  remarks  apply  also  to 
the  wreckage  and  scrap  resulting  from  train  acci- 
dents and  the  burning  of  cars.  Record  must  be 
kept  of  the  disposal  of  all  scrap  and  old  material. 
"Old  rails  should  not  be  left  hidden  in  the 
grass  and  weeds  of  the  right  of  way,  but  properly 
piled  for  shipment  as  they  may  be  used  for  side 
tracks  or  branches,  sold  for  scrap,  or  even  made 
into  new  rails  of  somewhat  lighter  section  by 
heating  and  rerolling.  Old  ties  have  rarely  much 
value,  but  if  thrown  away,  sold,  burnt,  used  for 
cribbing,  etc.,  all  unbroken  spikes  should  first  be 
pulled,  and  when  ties  are  burned  the  ashes 
should  be  raked  over  for  spikes.  In  piling  old 
rails,  the  splice  bars  and  bolts  should  all  be  re- 
moved, good  splice  bars  sorted  in  pairs  and 
broken  bars  kept  separate.  Nuts  and  bolts,  if 
good,  should  be  kept  together,  but  broken  bolts 
should  have  the  nuts  removed  and  kept  separate. 
Many  spikes  that  now  go  from  the  track  to  the 
scrap  heap  (or  down  the  bank)  might  be  used 
over  again  if  properly  driven  in  the  first  place 
and  properly  drawn.  Foremen  should  be  careful 
to  see  that  all  track  and  car  material,  etc.,  is 
picked  up  regularly  and  that  their  men  do  not  get 
in  the  habit  of  flinging  old  bolts,  spikes,  etc.,  down 
the  bank.  In  removing  bolts,  the  nuts  should  be 
unscrewed  properly,  the  bolt  taken  out,  and  the 
lock  and  nut  put  back  on  the  bolt.  If,  however, 
the  nut  is  so  rusted  or  wedged  on  the  bolt  that 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY.  429 

it  will  not  unscrew,  it  is  more  economical  to 
knock  off  the  nut  with  the  end  of  bolt  in  it,  with 
a  sledge,  than  to  waste  time  in  forcing  the 
wrench.  Only  good  discipline  and  good  manage- 
ment of  men  can  insure  the  exercise  of  proper 
judgment  as  to  when  to  knock  off  nuts  in  this 
way.  If  a  wedge  or  rusted  bolt  has  to  be  knocked 
out,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  hit  the  head  of 
the  rail. 

"At  the  section  tool  house  the  scrap  should  be 
piled  and  sorted  (as  described  under  'Policing') 
nuts  taken  off  broken  bolts,  etc.,  this  work  being 
done  in  wet  or  stormy  weather  or  when  the  men 
cannot  work  on  the  track.  All  scrap  iron,  lum- 
ber, etc.,  must  be  piled  neatly  on  platforms,  car 
scrap,  links,  drawbars,  couplers,  etc.,  being  kept 
separate.  Small  scrap,  such  as  bolts,  nuts  and 
spikes,  may  be  kept  in  shallow  boxes  or  in  old 
spike  and  boli  kegs.  Rails  may  be  piled  on  the 
right  of  way  at  mile  posts,  but  should  not  be 
piled  with  splice  bars  and  bolts  left  on.  Old  ties 
may  be  stacked  on  the  right  of  way  until  per- 
mission is  given  to  burn  them,  the  ties  removed 
being  piled  at  the  end  of  each  day's  work  and 
not  left  in  the  ditch  or  on  the  roadbed. 

"  Under  this  heading  it  will  be  appropriate  to 
refer  to  the  treatment  and  disposal  of  the  mate- 
rial found  in  the  general  scrap  pile  at  the  division 
points  or  main  shops,  which  subject  has  been  dis- 
cussed by  Mr.  J.  N.  Barr  of  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee &  St.  Paul  Railway  in  a  paper  before  the 
Western  Railway  Club.  The  style  of  material 
delivered  for  the  scrap  pile  is  significant  of  the 


130      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

character  of  the  men  sending  it,  as  for  instance 
one  man  who  is  somewhat  careless  and  finds  it 
easier  to  use  new  material  than  to  sort  out  the 
serviceable  from  the  unserviceable  scrap  at  his 
tool  house,  will  send  in  many  old  bolts  and  nuts 
that  are  good  for  further  use.  In  some  cases  it 
may  be  advisable  to  go  to  the  expense  of  putting 
in  a  set  of  small  rolls,  to  bring  odd  sizes  of  iron 
to  standard  sizes  for  bolts,  plates,  etc. ;  a  shear 
(perhaps  operated  by  an  airbrake  cylinder  with 
4  feet  lever  and  6  inch  jaw)  for  cutting  rods,  or 
even  to  build  a  small  furnace  for  heating  angles, 
etc.,  to  be  rerolled.  Of  course  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  while  with  a  single  large  scrap  pile 
at  one  large  central  shop  it  may  be  economical 
to  carefully  sort  and  handle  the  material  and 
treat  it  as  above  noted,  this  may  not  be  the  case 
with  several  smaller  piles  at  divisional  shops. 
Also,  that  in  some  cases  an  article  made  by  treat- 
ing scrap  may  be  more  expensive  than  a  newly 
purchased  article  of  the  same  kind.  These  are 
matters  for  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  cal- 
culation in  order  to  insure  real  economy. 

"In  most  scrap  piles  there  is  a  great  propor- 
tion of  bolts.  These  may  be  sorted  as  to  their 
diameters  and  length  and  stored  in  compart- 
ments. Stub  ends  of  f-inchto  1-inch  bolts,  about 
5i  inches  long,  may  be  used  for  making  track 
bolts,  a  bolt  heading  machine  at  the  shops  being 
equipped  with  suitable  dies.  Nuts  may  be  cleaned 
of  rust  by  pickling  in  a  weak  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  then  used  again,  or  if  damaged 
they  may  be  slightly  compressed  by  dies  in  a  bolt 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  431 

• 

heading  machine  and  then  retapped.  Plates  and 
shapes  may  be  utilized  for  small  plate  girders 
to  cross  culverts,  etc.  Lining  bars,  crawbars, 
wrenches,  etc.,  may  be  successfully  made  from 
scrap  steel  tires,  and  the  slide  plates  for  switches 
may  be  made  from  elliptic  springs,  the  plate 
being  heated  to  a  cherry  red  and  then  put  in  a 
bulldozer,  where  it  is  sheared  off  and  has  two 
square  holes  punched  at  one  operation.  Old 
flues,  which  bring  little  as  scrap,  make  good 
fencing  for  station  grounds,  posts  for  track  signs, 
or  grates  for  cinder  pits,  where  fireboxes  are 
leaned  out.  Old  fish  plates  or  plain  splice  bars 
may  be  sheared  to  length  and  stamped  to  shape 
for  rail  braces. 

"In  sorting,  care  should  be  taken  to  pick  out 
any  new  or  practically  uninjured  material  which 
maY»  by  accident,  or  carelessness  have  got  in  with 
the  scrap.  When  sorted  the  stuff  should  be  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  be  easily  seen  and  got  at,  but  dis- 
crimination should  be  exercised  so  as  not  to  store 
a  lot  of  miscellaneous  material  on  the  chance  of 
its  being  of  some  possible  use  eventually."* 

Inspection.  Inspection  of  tracks  should  be  made 
daily  by  the  track  walker,  twice  a  week  by  the 
section  boss,  and  once  a  week  by  the  roadmaster. 
Figs.  345  and  348  illustrate  inspection  cars  suit- 
able for  roadmasters,  engineers,  superintendents 
and  others  when  examining  track  or  other  por- 
tions of  the  property  distant  from  depots.  The 
following  is  a  description  of  a  motor  inspection 
car,  designed  for  inspection  purposes. 

*  "Railway  Track  and  Trackwork,"  Tratman,  pp.  311-315. 


432       BUILDINQ  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  345. 

INSPECTION  HAND  CAR. 

Especially  designed  for  light  uses  in  track  work;  made  as  light  as  pos- 
sible, consistent  with  strength.  Two  revolving  chairs  en  front  platform. 
Weight,  with  chairs,  470  Ibs;  without  chairs,  390  Ibs.  Wheels,  wood  centre, 
light  pattern,  22  inches  diameter,  or  20-inch  light  steel,  as  desired. 

The  car  weighs  about  300  pounds  and  can  be 
quickly  put  on  and  removed  from  the  rails  by 
one  man,  being  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  pushed 
about  on  one  wheel  by  lifting  up  one  end. 

Gasoline  and  an  electric  battery  supply  the 
motive  power.  The  battery  consists  of  a  series 
of  eight  dry  cells,  which  with  proper  care  will 
run  the  car  over  900  miles. 

To  start  the  car  is  simply  to  turn  on  the  gaso- 
line, move  a  lever  which  connects  the  battery 
with  the  cylinders — the  work  of  but  a  few  sec- 
onds. To  stop — the  gasoline  and  battery  are 
turned  off  and  the  brakes  applied. 

As  it  can  be  started  in  a  few  seconds,  as  fre- 
quent stops  as  desired  can  be  made  and  no  delay 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  433 


FIG.  348. 

DOUBLE   OR   FOUR-  WHEELED  MOTOR  CAR,  FOR  INSPECTION 
PURPOSES. 

A  variation  of  the  Motor  car  is  the  double  type.  In  this  case  two  com- 
plete single  three-wheeled  motor  cars  are  used,  and  after  discarding  the 
third  wheel,  together  with  the  arm  and  brace  rod,  the  two  main  frames  are 
joined  by  a  seat  that  runs  across  the  front  of  both,  containing  ample  room 
for  four  persons.  Back  of  this,  but  between  the  two  main  frames,  is  a  plat- 
form upon  which  a  considerable  amount  of  hand  baggage  or  tools  can  be 
carried  if  desirable.  At  the  rear  of  the  car  the  two  driving  axles  are  united 
by  a  connecting  shaft  having  universal  couplings,  by  which  means  any  pro- 
pelling impulse  communicated  to  either  of  the  rear  drivers  is  received  by 
both.  There  is  also  on  each  of  the  main  frames  a  rear  seat  for  an  operator, 
making  a  capacity  on  the  device  for  six  persons.  Each  main  frame  having 
its  full  double  engine,  there  is  ample  power  for  use  of  the  car  with  its  full 
load  under  all  ordinary  circumstances. 

These  double  cars  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  disconnected  at  any 
time  and  used  as  two  three-wheeled  cars. 

experienced  when  ready  to  proceed.  A  speed  of 
over  thirty  miles  an  hour  can  be  developed  on  a 
straight  level  track,  so  that  the  car  affords  a  quick 
and  satisfactory  means  of  getting  over  the  ground. 
The  speed  is  always  under  the  control  of  the 
operator,  and  the  car  can  be  run  as  fast  or  as  slow 
as  desired.  It  is  inexpensive  to  operate.  A  gal- 
lon of  gasoline  will  ordinarily  run  the  car  over 
seventy-five  miles.  Provision  is  made  for  carry- 
ing with  the  car  four  gallons,  or  sufficient  for  a 
run  of  about  300  miles.  It  will  carry  three  per- 
sons; the  operator  who  sits  in  the  rear,  and  two 
passengers  on  the  front  seat,  which  is  shown  open 
in  the  cut,  but  which  folds  up  for  convenience 
when  not  in  use. 

28    Vol.  13 


434       BUILDING  AND  KEPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

On  some  railroad  systems  thero  is  an  annual 
inspection,  this  generally  is  done  in  the  Fall. 
This  inspection  covers  track  and  the  property 
generally. 

"The  annual  inspection  of  the  Wabash  Rail- 
way is  conducted  to  determine  the  condition  of 
each  section  and  division  of  main  track  and  sid- 
ings, in  the  following  particulars:  1,  line  and 
surface;  2,  level;  3,  joints,  ties  and  switches  in 
the  main  track;  4,  drainage;  5,  policing;  6,  sid- 
ing (meaning  all  tracks  outside  of  the  main  track, 
and  these  must  be  inspected,  marked  and  kept 
separately  from  markings  on  main  track).  These 
conditions  shall  be  determined  by  a  system  of 
marking  for  every  mile  of  road;  10  shall  indicate 
perfection;  5  shall  indicate  a  condition  unsafe 
for  a  speed  of  25  miles  per  hour,  and  0  the  worst 
possible  condition,  intermediate  numbers  being 
used  to  indicate  intermediate  conditions. 

"The  annual  report  shall  show  the  total  ex- 
pense for  labor  for  the  year  on  each  mile  of  main 
track,  and  each  mile  of  side  track,  the  rating 
being  determined  as  hereinafter  set  forth.  The 
yard  sections  shall  be  classified  together  for  the 
first  and  second  premiums  the  same  as  the  dis- 
tricts. 

"The  final  rating  of  each  section,  for  classifica- 
tion, shall  be  made  as  follows:  The  conditions 
noted  under  the  markings  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5 
shall  be  reduced  to  an  average  rating,  which,  in 
a  column  of  the  report  shall  represent  the  gen- 
eral average  for  conditions  noted  on  main  track. 
The  general  average  of  conditions  under  marking 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  435 

No.  6  in  its  column,  will  indicate  the  general 
average  of  conditions  noted  on  all  sidings. 

"  Sections  having  iron  rail  shall  be  allowed  one 
point  over  steel  rail,  sections  having  steel  rail  in 
service  eight  years  and  upwards,  half  a  point, 
provided  this  difference  does  not  increase  the  re- 
sult above  10.  This  point  will  be  added  to  final 
average  and  will  not  be  noted  by  the  inspectors. 
The  sections  on  each  division  roadmaster's  ter- 
ritory showing  the  highest  general  average  shall 
be  rewarded  by  a  premium  of  $35.00  to  the  sec- 
tion foreman  and  the  second  highest  average  by 
$25.00. 

"1.  Line. — True  line  means  straight  line  on 
tangents  and  uniform  curvature  on  curves  so  far 
as  the  eye  can  Detect.  When  these  requirements 
are  fulfilled  the  condition  must  be  represented 
by  10. 

"Continuous  and  very  apparent  deviations  from 
the  true  alignment  over  the  entire  length  of  one 
mile,  which  would  limit  the  maximum  speed  for 
the  safe  passage  of  trains  to  25  miles  per  hour, 
must  be  represented  by  5.  A  condition  of  align- 
ment which  would  be  difficult  for  a  train  to  pass, 
should  be  recorded  as  0. 

"Conditions  intermediate  between  those  de- 
scribed above  shall  be  indicated  in  the  proper 
ratio  representing  these  conditions. 

"Surface.  True  surface  means  a  uniform  grade 
line  between  changes  of  grade,  and  the  conditions 
must  be  noted  as  in  regard  to  line. 

"2.  Level.  The  inspector  must  watch  the 
level  index  and  must  note  unusual  oscillations  of 


436       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  car  due  to  unlevel  track  on  tangents,  want  of 
uniformity  of  elevation  on  curves,  or  unequal 
gauge. 

"If  the  inspector  can  detect  no  vibration  or 
oscillation  of  the  car  due  to  unlevel  track  on 
tangents,  and  want  of  uniformity  on  elevation  of 
curves,  he  will  record  the  condition  as  10  and  in- 
termediate conditions  must  be  recorded  as 
already  noted. 

"3.  Joints,  ties  and  switches.  A  perfect  joint 
is  one  that  is  fully  bolted  and  tight.  Ties  must 
be  properly  spaced  as  per  standard  plan,  and  fully 
spiked  with  four  spikes  in  each  tie.  Ends  of  ties, 
one  side  must  be  parallel  with  rail.  Switches 
must  be  placed  exactly  as  shown  in  standard 
specifications.  When  these  are  fulfilled  the  con- 
dition must  be  represented  by  10  and  intermedi- 
ate conditions  recorded  as  already  noted. 

"4.  Drainage.  The  ditches  shall  be  uniform 
and  free  from  obstruction,  and  with  sufficient  in- 
cline to  afford  proper  drainage.  Ballast  should 
be  uniform  and  equally  distributed.  Any  condi- 
tion less  than  described  in  the  foregoing  will  be 
represented  by  such  fraction  of  10  as  it  bears  to 
the  required  condition. 

"5.  Policing.  This  shall  consist  of  the  follow- 
ing items,  and  a  perfect  condition  in  all  these  re- 
spects shall  be  represented  by  a  marking  of  10. 

"A.  Cross  ties  and  iron  must  be  piled  accord- 
ing to  the  general  rules. 

"  B.  Grass,  bushes  and  weeds  should  be  kept 
cut  close  to  the  ground  within  limits  of  right  of 
way,  and  not  allowed  to  grow  closer  than  within 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAT.  437 

6  feet  of  the  rails.  Stumps  and  logs  should  be 
cleared  from  within  limits  of  right  of  way. 

"C.  Road  crossings  must  be  in  accordance 
with  standard  plans  and  must  be  clear  and  safe 
for  the  passage  of  animals  and  vehicles. 

"D.  Signs  must  be  placed  in  position  as  re- 
quired in  standard  clearance  diagram. 

"E.  Cross  and  line  fences  shall  be  kept  in  re- 
pair after  being  constructed  by  fence  gang.  They 
shall  be  of  standard  plans.  Cross  fences  and 
cattle  guards  shall  be  clear  of  all  grass  and  weeds, 
and  shall  be  whitewashed. 

"Any  conditions  less  than  prescribed  in  fore- 
going subdivisions  will  be  represented  by  such 
fraction  of  10  as  it  bears  to  the  required  condi- 
tion, i 

"Expense.  The  section  which  is  maintained  at 
the  least  expense  shall  receive  10  points.  The 
amount  of  expense  on  each  section  to  be  deter- 
mined as  follows:  From  the  aggregate  expense 
of  the  year  shall  be  deducted  the  cost  for  extra 
work,  such  as  placing  ties,  rails,  ballast  and  ditch- 
ing for  which  credit  will  be  made  as  follows:  Ties 
in  rock  ballast  credited  at  20  cents  per  tie;  ties 
in  gravel,  cinder  or  earth  ballast  8  cents  per  tie; 
rock  ballast  credited  at  $2.50  per  car;  other  bal- 
last at  $1.00  per  car;  rail  laid  credited  at  $1.50 
per  100  feet,  ditching  at  $1.00  per  100  feet. 
After  this  deduction  is  made  the  section  show- 
ing the  least  expense  will  be  marked  100,  which, 
divided  by  10,  will  give  the  rating  of  that  section. 
For  each  additional  $10.00  of  expense  over  the 
lowest  section  for  all  other  sections,  deduct  one 
point  from  100  points,  the  remainder  after  being 


438      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

divided  by  10  shall  be  the  rating  of  that  section 
regarding  expenses  on  the  general  report,  and 
shall  be  recorded  as  the  average  expense  of  all 
miles  on  that  section. 

"The  inspection  committee  suall  consist  of  six 
or  more  persons  or  shall  be  arranged  as  shown  on 
the  accompanying  form.  (The  form  or  card  is 
9i  inches  long  and  6  inches  high  with  ten  lines 
under  the  heading.)  The  general  superintend- 
ent will  assign  duties  to  inspectors  on  the  day  of 
inspection.  The  placing  of  different  members  of 
general  committee  on  the  several  sub-commit- 
tees will  be  performed  by  the  officer  in  charge  of 
inspection.  Each  member  of  these  committees 
will  be  furnished  with  a  form  showing  the  condi- 
tions which  he  must  note  upon  which  he  must 
indicate  the  rating  of  each  mile. 

"  The  officer  in  charge  of  inspection  shall  take 
up  all  forms  when  rating  has  been  placed  thereon, 
and  make  a  general  report  to  the  general  superin- 
tendent showing  the  rating  of  all  sections  as 
hereinbefore  described,  showing  the  names  of  all 
persons  entitled  to  a  premium.  The  general 
superintendent  will  then  cause  the  awards  to  be 
made,  and  have  signs  placed  on  sections  to  which 
premiums  have  been  awarded,  which  will  indi- 
cate the  standing  of  that  section  on  each  subdi- 
vision. 

"  The  form  of  the  report  is  as  follows,  being 
printed  on  sheets  about  12  inches  wide  and  24 
inches  high.  The  line  of  the  first  prize  is  printed 
in  heavy  faced  type  and  that  of  the  second  prize 
in  italics."* 

*  "  Railway  Track  and  Track  Work,"  Tratman,  pp.  337-340. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  WAY. 


439 


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440       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


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CHAPTER  IX. 

WRECKS. 

So  long  as  human  beings  are  fallible  and  the 
material  with  which  they  work  falls  short  of  per- 
fection, accidents  will  occur  in  the  operation  of 
the  most  scientifically  constructed  railroads. 
Hence  every  railway  company,  anticipating  the 
inevitable,  provides  for  the  disaster  that  must 
sooner  or  later  oc'bur.  To  accomplish  this  there 
should  be  kept  at  each  division  headquarters  a 
wrecking  outfit  consisting  of  a  tool  car  and  der- 
rick car.  These  cars  should  at  all  times  be  in 
charge  of  one  competent  man  who  should  be  a 
mechanic.  He  should  have  a  list  of  the  tools 
required  and  should  see  that  they  are  all  on  hand 
and  in  first  class  condition  for  active  service  at 
any  moment.  There  should  be  15  to  20  men 
selected  from  the  shop  and  yard  force  who  can 
be  used  at  wrecks.  These  men  should  hold  them- 
selves ready  to  be  called  out  at  any  time.  Their 
duties  should  be  assigned  them  when  organizing 
the  force;  thus  one  should  be  an  engineer  capa- 
ble of  handling  a  locomotive;  two  or  three  should 
be  able  to  make  all  kinds  of  splices,  hitches  and 
knots  with  ropes;  others  should  be  familiar  with 
the  use  of  hydraulic  and  other  jacks,  etc. 

(441) 


442       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  tools  which  should 
be  kept  on  a  wrecking  or  tool  car: 


Heating  stove. 

Hand  saws. 

Axes. 

Adzes. 

Wheel  gauge. 

Steel  wrenches. 

Soft  and  chipping  hammers. 

Track  shovels. 

30-inch  steel  bars. 

12  torches. 

16-foot  ladder. 

Assorted  sizes  drift  bolts. 

Coupling  links  and  pins. 

8-inch  and  19-inch  pony  jacks. 

Standard  frogs. 

Switch  chains. 

Torpedoes. 

Portable  stretcher. 

2  gallons  alcohol. 

Packing  hooks  and  spoons. 

12  grain  sacks,  2-bushel. 

Water  barrel. 

Cross-cut  saws. 

Hand  axes. 

Sledge  hammers. 

12  and  15-in.  monkey  wrenches. 

Spike  mauls. 

4- inch  rolling  line. 

Picks. 

1  pair  of  climbers. 


Scoop  shovels. 

Pinch  bars. 

Cold  chisels. 

Clevises. 

4  pairs  rubber  boots. 

Pair  patent  frogs. 

Iron-bound  wedges. 

Red  flags. 

Red,  white  and  green  lanterns. 

Oil  and  waste  for  packing. 

6  baskets  (grain)  2-bushel. 

6  water  pails. 

Standard  journal  brasses  for 
foreign  cars. 

2  hydraulic  lifting  jacks,  15 
and  20  tons. 

2  ratchet  lifting  jacks  and 
levers. 

A  few  hundred  of  spare  1-inch 
to  2£-inch  guy  lines  and 
snatch  blocks. 

A  small  coil  of  telegraph  wire 
and  a  few  insulators  and 
other  telegraph  supplies 
necessary  to  start  an  em- 
ergency office. 

A  full  set  of  edge  tools,  the 
personal  property  of  the 
foreman  of  the  wrecking 
crew. 


The  following  tools  should  be  kept  on  the  der- 
rick car: 

1  truck  line,  2J  inches  diameter,  250  feet  long. 

1  truck  line,  2£  inches  diameter,  200  feet  long. 

2  second-hand  steel  rails. 
4  iron  bound  wedges. 

6  switch  chains. 

3  truck  chains. 

2  wire  cables,  \\  inches  diameter. 

A  thirty-five  ton  steam  wrecking  crane  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  349.     Some  roads,  however,  still 


WRECKS. 


443 


FI.G.  349. 

35-TON    STEAM   WRECKING    CRANE. 

Unusual  stability  is  obtained  by  the  powerful  steel  jack-arms  which  are 
hinged  to  base  of  A/frame.  "Riese  jack-arms  extend  to  a  lateral  base  of  19* 
and  are  arranged  to  fold  up  when  not  in  use.  The  car  is  also  provided  with 
two  additional  jacks  and  four  rail  clamps.  Ample  stability  is  obtained  for 
all  ordinary  loads  by  means  of  jack-screws  and  rail  clamps.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  let  down  the  jack-arms  when  heavy  loads  are  to  be  lifted  and 
swung  to  the  side.  For  the  lifting  of  the  maximum  load  in  extreme  side 
positions,  it  is  necessary  to  still  further  anchor  the  machine  by  means  of  side 
guys  to  the  top  of  A-frame,  and  ring  bolts  are  provided  in  the  head  for  this 
purpose. 


FIG.  350. 

15-TON  DOUBLE  MAST  HAND  WRECIKNG  CRANE. 


444       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  351. 

AUTOMATIC  LOWERING  JACK. 

This  car  repairing  and  wrecking  jack  is  fast  taking  the  place  of  the  slow, 
cumbersome  hydraulic  jacks,  for  lightly  loaded  and  empty  cars,  etc.  It  is 
more  portable,  more  easily  applied,  and  less  liable  to  derangement,  and  in 
fact  is  in  every  way  superior.  It  is  stanch  and  tall.  Forged  steel' raising 
rack  for  reaching  under  car  beds  and  lifting  same  above  obstruction.  By 
means  of  its  side  lug  it  can  grapple  low  set  loads  with  equal  facility.  Lifts 
and  lowers  on  downward  stroke  of  lever  only.  The  direction  can  be  quickly 
reversed  at  will  of  operator.  Height  when  rack  is  down,  28  inches;  rise  o'f 
lifting  rack,  \1%  inches;  size  of  forged  steel  rack,  2x1  %  inches;  weight,  90 
pounds. 

use  hand  wrecking  cranes.  Fig.  350  represents  a 
car  equipped  with  two  15-ton  hand  cranes,  though 
sometimes  only  one  crane  is  placed  on  the  der- 
rick car.  A  jack  for  lifting  loads  is  shown  in  Fig. 
351.  Fig.  353  illustrates  a  hydraulic  jack  capable 
of  raising  30  to  40  tons. 

Various  styles  of  wrecking  frogs  are  illustrated 
by  Figs.  354  to  356. 

When  a  wreck  occurs  the  first  duty  of  the  offi- 
cer in  charge  of  running  trains  is  to  order  the 
wrecking  train  and  crew  and  all  available  sec- 


WRECKS. 


445 


FIG.  353. 

DUDGEON'S  HYDRAULIC  JACK. 
Showing  construction  and  names  of  parts. 

tion  men  to  the  scene.  The  first  duty  of  a  sec- 
tion foreman  when  he  receives  notice  that  there 
has  been  an  accident  and  he  is  wanted  there,  is 
to  collect  his  men  and  take  his  hand  car  and  all 
his  portable  tools,  even  those  which  he  thinks  he 
is  not  likely  to  use.  He  should  not  go  short  of 
tools,  expecting  that  the  other  foremen  there  will 
have  enough.  The  other  foremen  may  think  the 
same,  and  valuable  time  will  be  lost  by  the  want 
or  forethought  of  both.  The  following  specific 
directions  are  given  to  trackmen  by  an  authority 
on  the  subject.* 

*Kindelan,  "The  Trackman's  Helper." 


446      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

"When  a  track  foreman  arrives  at  the  scene  of 
the  accident  he  should  proceed  immediately  to 
do  whatever  work,  in  his  judgment,  would  con- 
tribute most  to  putting  the  track  in  a  passable 
condition  for  other  trains,  notwithstanding  the 
absence  of  his  superior  officers,  who  may  not  be 


PIG.  354. 

TILDEN  WRECKING  FROG. 


FIG.  355. 


PALMERTON  WRECKING  FROG. 


WRECKS.  447 


FIG.  356. 

ELLIOT  CAR  REPLACERS  OR  WRECKING  FROG. 

able  to  reach  the  wreck  for  several  hours.  If  the 
track  is  torn  up  and  the  cars  do  not  interfere,  put 
in  ties  enough  to '  carry  a  train  safely  over 
where  you  can.  If  the  rails  are  bent  out  of  shape 
secure  some  from  near  by  if  it  is  possible.  If  this 
cannot  be  done,  get  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
damaged  rails  to  their  proper  shape  and  spiked 
down  in  the  track. 

"If  a  small  bridge  or  culvert  has  given  way, 
crib  it  up  with  ties  until  you  can  cross  it  with 
track.  If  you  cannot  procure  the  ties  along  }7our 
section  and  many  are  not  needed,  remove  a  part 
of  the  ties  from  the  track  where  it  is  full  tied 
and  where  it  will  leave  a  sufficient  number  in 
the  track  to  make  it  safe  for  the  passage  of  trains. 

"In  the  same  manner  if  you  are  short  of  bolts 
and  spikes  and  too  much  time  would  be  lost  by 
going  after  them,  borrow  some  from  track  where 
they  can  be  spared  and  fix  track  to  let  trains 
pass. 

"If  one  or  both  trucks  beneath  a  car  should 
leave  the  track  at  once  and  turn  across  it  as  is 
often  the  case,  uncouple,  from  car  and  hitch  a 


448       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

switch  rope  to  the  corner  of  the  truck  and  to  the 
draw  head  of  the  car  next  to  the  one  which  is  off 
the  track.  Then  pull  the  truck  into  a  position 
parallel  to  the  track,  after  which  it  can  be  put 
on  the  rails  with  the  wrecking  frogs. 

If  the  car  should  be  loaded  very  heavily,  it 
might  be  advisable  to  raise  the  end  with  jacks 
before  squaring  the  truck.  If  the  right  man  un- 
dertakes this  job,  the  train  need  not  be  delayed 
over  thirty  minutes. 

"  Sometimes  when  a  car  leaves  the  track,  the 
center  pin  breaks  or  is  so  badly  bent  that  it 
cannot  be  used  again.  This  often  happens  on  the 
road  where  there  is  nothing  at  hand  to  remove 
the  crooked  pin.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  car  is 
empty  or  not  heavily  loaded,  it  is  best  to  roll  the 
truck  from  beneath  the  car  off  the  track,  and 
haul  the  car  into  the  station  carefully  supported 
on  that  end  by  the  regular  coupling  pin  and  link. 

"When  the  ends  of  a  broken  center  pin  do  not 
project  the  end  of  a  car  can  be  jacked  up,  the 
truck  placed  in  position,  and  the  end  of  the  car 
again  allowed  to  rest  in  its  place  on  the  truck, 
after  which,  if  watched  carefully,  the  car  can  be 
hauled  a  long  distance. 

1  'It  often  happens  that  a  car  gets  off  the  track 
in  such  a  place  that  it  is  impossible  to  get  the 
help  of  an  engine  to  pull  it  on  again  without  con- 
siderable delay.  When  a  case  of  this  kind  occurs 
and  there  are  other  cars  on  the  track  near  by, 
take  the  car  nearest  to  the  one  off  the  track  and 
couple  the  two  together  with  a  chain  or  rope  long 
enough  to  give  plenty  of  slack.  Then  get  to- 


WRECKS.  449 

gether  what  men  are  available  and  push  the  car 
which  is  on  the  track  close  to  the  wrecked  car. 
When  you  are  ready  to  pull  the  wrecked  car  up 
on  the  track,  start  the  car  which  is  coupled  to  it 
away  from  it  as  fast  as  the  men  can  push  it.  The 
jerk,  when  the  slack  of  the  line  is  taken  up,  will- 
pull  the  car  on  the  track  as  well  as  an  engine 
can  do  it.  If  you  have  men  enough,  use  for  the 
motive  power,  two  or  more  cars  if  necessary. 
This  is  what  is  called  'slacking  a  car  onto  track/ 

"When  cars  have  got  off  the  track  and  are  still 
on  the  ties,  it  is  best  to  put  blocks  or  ties  be- 
tween those  in  the  track  to  keep  the  wheels  from 
sinking  between  the  ties.  By  doing  this  at  once 
before  attempting  to  put  the  cars  back  on  the 
track,  will  generally  save  considerable  time  and 
labor. 

"If  an  engine  or  car  mounts  the  outside  rail  of 
a  sharp  curve,  and  persists  in  running  off  the 
track,  oil  the  rails  thoroughly  where  the  most 
trouble  is  experienced.  This  will  generally  allow 
the  engine  or  car  to  go  around  the  curve  without 
leaving  the  track. 

"Very  rusty  rails  on  a  curve  track  which  has 
not  been  used  for  some  time,  often  cause  the 
wheel  to  mount  the  outside  rail  of  a  curve,  the 
surface  not  being  smooth  enough  to  allow  the 
wheels  to  slide. 

"If  at  any  time  you  find  the  connecting  rod  of 
a  stub  switch  broken,  or  you  want  to  use  the 
switch  and  have  no  switch  stand,  slip  a  car  link 
between  the  ends  of  the  lead  rails,  allowing 
enough  of  it  to  project  to  hold  the  ends  of  the 

29    Vol.  13 


450         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

moving  rails  in  place,  or  take  a  piece  of  plank  of 
the  right  shape  and  use  it  in  the  same  way  as  the 
link.  This  is  better. 

"When  the  car  trucks  are  thrown  some  dis- 
tance from  the  track  in  a  wreck,  the  quickest 
method  of  putting  them  on  the  track  again  if  you 
have  no  derrick  car,  is  to  take  bars  and  turn  them 
almost  parallel  to  the  track,  but  with  one  end  a 
little  the  closest  to  the  track.  Hitch  a  rope  to 
this  end  of  the  truck  and  to  the  engine  or  the 
nearest  car  which  is  coupled  to  the  engine,  and 
the  truck  will  pull  onto  the  track  easily,  if  there 
is  nothing  to  obstruct  its  passage. 

"A  link  made  of  iron  or  steel  and  fashioned 
after  the  pattern  shown  in  Fig.  357 .is  very  handy 


FIG.  357. 

DEVICE  FOR  SPLICING  A  BROKEN  CHAIN. 

to  have  when  at  a  wreck  pulling  cars  or  engines 
with  a  chain.  If  a  chain  breaks  the  two  broken 
ends  can  be  brought  together,  and  fixed  in  this 
link  as  if  held  with  a  grab  hook. 

"When  car  trucks  are  sunk  in  soft  ground  at 
a  wreck,  and  there  is  no  derrick  car  or  other  lift- 


WRECKS.  451 

ing  apparatus  at  hand,  a  good  way  to  handle  them 
is  to  place  a  tie  cross  way  in  the  ground  about 
four  or  five  feet  from  the  truck  then  place  two 
more  long  ties  or  timbers  with  their  centers  rest- 
ing across  the  first  tie  and  their  ends  in  front  of 
the  truck  wheels.  The  truck  can  then  be  pushed 
up  on  top  of  the  long  ties  as  if  on  a  track.  When 
it  is  centered  over  the  bottom  tie,  the  truck  can 
be  easily  turned  to  run  in  any  direction. 

"Trackmen  in  charge  of  a  ballasting  outfit  if 
they  are  new  in  the  business  are  often  at  a  loss 
to  know  the  quickest  *vay  to  put  a  plow  back  on 
the  cars  if  it  should  accidentally  be  pulled  off  on 
the  ground.  The  best  way  to  do  in  such  a  case 
is  to  roll  the  plow  or  pull  it  with  the  engine  and 
cable  into  the  same  position  on  the  track  that  it 
would  occupy  on  the  cars;  then  raise  up  the 
snout  of  the  plow  until  you  can  back  the  end  of 
a  car  under  it,  hook  the  end  of  the  cable  to  the 
plow,  block  the  car  wheels  and  pull  the  plow  on 
to  the  car  with  the  engine. 

"If  the  hind  truck  of  any  kind  of  a  car  should  by 
accident  be  derailed,  broken  or  rendered  useless, 
the  car  should  be  taken  to  the  next  station  by 
uncoupling  it  from  the  cars  behind  it.  Remove 
the  disabled  truck  from  the  track;  then  take  the 
caboose  jacks  and  raise  the  body  of  the  car 
enough  to  slip  a  tie  under  it  across  the  track  rails; 
let  the  car  down  upon  the  tie,  and  by  running 
carefully  the  car  can  be  hauled  to  the  station  or 
side  track,  sliding  on  the  tie. 

"It  is  always  best  when  a  wrecked  car  is  loaded, 
to  remove  the  load,  or  transfer  it  to  another  car 


452       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

on  the  good  track.  Outfits  starting  to  go  to  a 
wreck  should  provide  themselves  with  all  the 
tools  and  appliances  necessary  for  this  purpose. 

"Car- truck  center-pins  which  have  been  twisted 
or  broken  in  a  wreck  may  be  removed  by  going 
inside  the  car  and  cutting  away  with  a  hammer 
and  cold  chisel  the  iron  ring  which  forms  the 
head  and  shoulder  of  the  pin.  The  pin  may  then 
be  driven  down  through  the  bottom  of  the  car. 

"There  should  always  be  a  man  on  hand  at  a 
wreck  to  look  after  such  jobs,  and  promptly  re- 
move all  break-beams,  hanging  irons,  etc.,  so  as 
not  to  delay  the  work  after  the  cars  are  picked 
up  or  ready  to  be  put  on  the  track. 

"When  pulling  on  a  chain  or  rope  with  a  loco- 
motive at  a  wreck  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
have  too  much  slack,  as  chains  break  easily.  The 
same*  is  true  of  switch  ropes,  but  when  they  are 
new  or  not  much  worn,  they  will  stand  a  greater 
slack  strain  than  a  chain  will.  Wire  cables  are 
preferable  to  either  a  chain  or  a  rope  for  pulling, 
and  they  will  stand  a  much  greater  slack  strain, 
if  not  allowed  to  become  twisted  out  of  shape. 

"There  is  always  danger  of  chains  or  switch 
ropes  breaking  when  engines  are  pulling  on  them 
at  a  wreck,  and  those  working  near  should  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  too  close  to  them. 

"What  is  generally  termed  'a  dead  man'  is  a 
device  sometimes  used  to  anchor  a  guy  or  stay 
rope  where  wrecking  cars,  engines  or  derricks 
have  to  do  very  heavy  hoisting  or  pulling.  It  is 
made  by  digging  a  trench  five  or  six  feet  at  a 
proper  distance  from  the  track  and  parallel  to  it. 


WRECKS.  453 

A  narrow  cross  trench  is  then  dug,  slanting  up- 
ward from  the  bottom  and  middle  of  the  first 
trench  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  good 
track  tie  or  heavy  timber  is  then  buried  in  the 
first  trench,  and  the  rope  is  passed  down  through 
the  cross  trench  and  secured  to  the  timber. 

"The  first  thing  to  do  with  a  wrecked  engine, 
if  the  frame  is  good,  is  to  take  jacks  and  put  the 
engine  in  an  upright  position,  such  as  it  would 
occupy  if  standing  on  the  main  track.  It  may 
then  be  blocked  up  and  raised  sufficiently  to 
place  under  it  rails  and  ties,  forming  a  temporary 
track.  The  main  track  should  then  be  cut  at  a 
rail  joint,  and  lined  out  in  an  easy  curve  until 
the  ends  of  the  rails  are  in  line  with  the  tem- 
porary track.  The  tracks  should  then  be  con- 
nected, and  the  engine  pulled  upon  the  main 
track.  If  the  engine  stands  at  such  an  angle  as 
to  require  a  very  sharp  curve  in  the  track  over 
which  it  is  pulled,  put  plenty  of  oil  on  the  track 
rails,  and  elevate  the  outside  rail  of  the  curve. 

"If  the  engine  is  only  off  the  rails  and  still  on 
the  track  ties,  additional  rails  may  be  spiked 
down  to  the  ties  in  front  of  the  wheels  like  a 
switch  lead,  and  connected  with  a  pair  of  the 
track  rails.  The  engine  may  be  pulled  on  again 
over  this  lead  and  the  main  track  closed.  This 
method  is  quicker  and  better  for  putting  a  de- 
railed engine  on  the  track  when  more  than  one 
truck  is  off  the  rails,  than  using  frogs  or  blocking. 

"  The  first  thing  to  do  at  any  wreck  of  import- 
ance, where  cars  block  the  main  track,  is  to  use 
the  first  locomotive  which  can  be  put  into  serv- 


454        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ice,  and  with  switch  ropes  pull  clear  of  the 
tracks  all  cars,  trucks  or  other  wreckage  which 
cannot  be  readily  put  back  on  the  track  with  the 
facilities  at  hand  for  doing  such  work.  Proper 
care  should  be  taken,  in  doing  this  part  of  the 
work,  not  to  injure  freight  in  the  cars.  When 
necessary,  remove  it  from  the  wrecked  cars  to  a 
place  of  safety,  and  pull  the  cars  and  truck  into 
a  position  alongside  the  track,  where  it  will  be 
handy  for  the  wrecking  car  to  pick  them  up  after 
it  arrives. 

"  The  moment  the  track  is  clear  of  wreckage, 
the  track  force  should  go  to  work  and  repair  it, 
and  quickly  put  it  in  good  condition  for  trains. 

"  Track  foremen  should  not  allow  their  men  to 
become  confused  or  mixed  up  with  the  other 
gangs  of  men  which  are  present  at  a  wreck,  ex- 
cept when  it  is  necessary  for  more  than  one  gang 
of  men  to  work  together;  even  then  the  foreman 
should  keep  his  own  men  as  much  together  as 
possible,  so  as  to  always  be  able  to  control  their 
actions  and  work  them  to  the  best  advantage. 

No  matter  what  part  of  the  work  at  a  wreck  a 
foreman  is  called  upon  to  do,  he  should  act 
promptly,  and  work  with  a  will  to  get  the  wreck 
cleared  up,  and  the  track  ready  for  passage  of 
trains  with  as  little  delay  as  possible. " 


CHAPTER  X. 

MAINTENANCE    OF    BRIDGES    AND    BUILDINGS. 

The  organization  of  the  Bridges  and  Buildings 
Department  of  a  railroad  corresponds  with  that 
of  the  Maintenance  of  Way  Department,  the 
official  known  as  the  Superintendent  of  Bridges 
and  Buildings  corresponding  to  that  of  Road- 
master  in  the  Maintenance  of  Way  Department. 
Their  relations  to  the  operating  and  engineering 
departments  are  similar. 

The  Superintendent  of  Bridges  and  Buildings 
is  given  more  mileage  than  the  Roadmaster;  it 
varies  from  300  to  400  miles  of  single  track; 
where  the  road  is  a  double  track  one,  and  bridges 
are  frequent,  the  mileage  is  decreased ;  where, 
however,  the  bridges  are  of  iron  and  the  culverts 
of  stone  or  iron,  the  mileage  can  be  increased. 

The  general  repair  work  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Bridges  and  Buildings 
requires  three  gangs  of  men,  each  of  which  is  in 
charge  of  a  foreman  known  as  the  bridge  fore- 
man or  boss  carpenter.  The  number  of  men 
employed  in  the  gang  of  each  boss  carpenter  will 
depend  largely  on  circumstances  and  the  number 
of  bridges  and  buildings  under  his  supervision. 
Where  a  road  is  located  in  a  thickly  settled  coun- 
try, no  special  outfit  is  required  except  a  tool 
car;  in  a  thinly  settled  country,  however, 

(455) 


456       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


each  gang  will  require  a  boarding  outfit, 
which  generally  consists  of  four  or  more 
cars,  the  first  for  cooking,  the  storing  of  pro- 
visions and  the  sleeping  rooms  for  the  boarding 
boss ;  the  second  for  a  dining  room ;  the  third 
provided  with  bunks  for  the  men  to  sleep  in;  and 
the  fourth  for  the  tools. 

The  tools  required  by  a  gang  of  bridge  carpen- 
ters consist  of : 


Name  of  Tool. 


No.  of 

Fig. 

Adzes 264 

Axes,  chopping 265 

"      hand 281 

41      broad 

Augers 358 

Brace  and  bits 271 

Boring  machine 359 

Bars,  claw 275 

"     crow 360 

"     pinch  361 

"     shackel 362 

Blocks  and  falls 363 

Cars,  hand 364 

11     push 365 

Cant  hooks 366 

Peveys 367 

Timber  grapples  368 

Crabs,  hoisting  or  winches  369 

Dolleys 370 

Files 278  and  371 

Flags,  red 

11      green 

"      white 

Grindstone 279 

Hammer,  hand 382 

Jacks,  hydraulic 353 

"      screws 372 

Lanterns,  red 

"        green 


Name  of  Tool. 


No.  of 
Fig. 

Lanterns,  white 283 

Level,  spirit 297 

"     track 307 

Oil  can 285 

Oiler 286 

Pump,  bilge 373 

Pick,  earth 289 

Pile  driver 

Padlock,  R.R 288 

Saws,  hand 293 

"     cross  cut 294 

Spike,  maul 299 

"      puller 908 

Sledges    300 

Shovels 301 

"        long  handle 303 

Track  lever  or  lifting  bar. .  304 

Track  gauge 305 

Torpedoes 309 

Tape  line  50  feet  long 

Toolbox 310 

Wheel  barrows 313 

Water  buckets 

"     dipper 

11      keg 

Wrenches,  track 311 

"         monkey 312 

bridge 377 

"         wheel 878 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  457 


FIG.  358. 

SHIP  AUGER  BITS,  USED  BY  BRIDGE  CARPENTERS. 


FIG.  359. 

BORING  MACHINE,  USED  WHERE  HEAVY  TIMBERS  ARE  FRAMED. 


458      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS 


FIG.  360. 

CROW  BAR. 


FIG.  361. 


A    PINCH  BAR  WITHOUT  A  HEEL. 
B  "  "      WITH  A  HEEL. 


FIG.  362. 

SHACKEL  BAR,  USED  FOR  DRAWING  DRIFT  BOLTS. 


FIG.  363. 


A.  SINGLE  BLOCK. 

B.  DOUBLE 

C.  TRIPLE         " 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  459 


FIG.  364. 


BRIDGE  HAND  CAR,  CONSTRUCTED  TO  CARRY  A  LARGER  GANG 
OF  MEN  THAN  THE  HAND  CAR  USED  BY  A  SECTION  GANG. 


FIG.  365. 

HEAVY  PUSH  CAR  FOR  USE  OF  BRIDGE  CREW. 


460       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  366. 

CANT  HOOK  USED  FOR  ROLLING  HEAVY  TIMBER. 


FIG.  367. 

PEVEY.  CAN  BE  USED  AS  A  CANT  HOOK  OR  CROW  BAR  IN 
HANDLING  TIMBER. 


FIG.  368. 


TIMBER  GRAPPLES  OR  LOG  HOOKS  FOR  CARRYING  HEAVY 
TIMBER. 


FIG.  369. 

HOISTING  CRABS  OR  WINCHES. 

A.  Single  Purchase. 

B.  Double  Purchase. 

Used  in  connection  with  blocks  and  falls  in  hoisting  heavy  timbers  and 
raising  framed  bents. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  461 


FIG.  370. 

TIMBER  TRUCKS  OR  DOLLYS.  USED  IN  HANDLING  HEAVY  TIMBER. 


FIG.  371. 


A.  TAPER  FILE. 

B.  DOUBLE  END  FILE. 

For  sharpening  saws. 


FIG.  372. 

HOUSE  RAISING  JACK  SCREW. 


462      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 


FIG.  373. 


.  BILGE  PUMPS. 

A.    Bottom  Suction.       B.    Side  Suction. 
For  pumping  out  foundations. 


FIG.  377. 

STEEL,  SOCKET  BRIDGE  WRENCH. 
For  tightening  nuts  on  large  bolts. 

There  are  also  required  several  tool  chests  of 
carpenter  tools  for  use  when  building  or  repairing 
depots.  It  is  not  necessary  to  provide  each  gang 
with  all  of  the  above  mentioned  tools;  while  they 
are  necessary  some  of  them  will  be  used  only 
occasionally,  and  they  can  be  left  in  charge  of 
the  division  storekeeper  to  be  issued  for  use  as 
occasion  requires. 

The  number  of  each  kind  of  tool  required 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  gang  and  the  char- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  463 


FIG.  378. 

WHEEL,  WRENCH. 

Used  to  tighten  nuts  on  rods  which  pass  through  a  number  of  pieces  of 
timber  as  caissons  or  cofferdams. 

acter  of  the  repairs  or  new  work  which  is  being 
done.  The  aim  should  be  to  issue  only  such  as 
are  needed  and  keep  the  others  in  the  division 
storehouse  where  they  can  be  issued  as  required. 

The  length  of  time  timber  lasts  in  bridges  in 
the  United  States  was  given  by  a  committee 
which  reported  to  the  Association  of  Railway 
Superintendents  of  Bridges  and  Buildings  at  their 
annual  meeting  in  1899,  and  is  given  in  Appen- 
dix L. 


464      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

It  is  the  custom  of  some  engineers  on  new  con- 
structions to  place  the  ends  of  stringers  of  the 
first  and  last  bents  of  a  pile  or  trestle  bridge  on 
mud  sills.  After  the  embankment  is  thoroughly 
settled,  piling  is  driven  in  the  embankment  and 
a  cap  put  on  these  piles  the  same  as  for  other 
bents  in  the  bridge,  and  the  stringers  are  placed 
on  these  caps.  This  is  the  first  repair  work  gen- 
erally required  on  a  new  line. 

Two  general  inspections  of  all  bridges  and 
buildings  should  be  made  annually;  one  in  the 
spring  when  the  frost  has  come  out  of  the  ground, 
and  the  other  in  the  fall  before  freezing  weather. 
These  inspections  should  commence  at  the  end 
where  the  bridge  numbers  commence,  and  each 
structure  should  be  inspected  in  the  order  in 
which  it  is  numbered.  Inspections  should  be 
made  by  the  engineer,  superintendent  of  bridges 
and  buildings  and  the  bridge  foreman. 

The  spring  inspection  should  be  made  to  de- 
tect damage  caused  by  frost,  ice  gorges,  etc., 
during  the  severe  weather  of  the  past  winter, 
and  also  to  ascertain  the  work  necessary  to  be 
done  during  the  following  summer. 

The  fall  inspection  is  to  ascertain  if  the  work 
laid  out  in  the  spring  has  been  properly  done, 
and  that  the  structures  are  secure;  also  to  ascer- 
tain what  renewals  and  repairs  are  necessary  to 
be  made  during  the  following  year,  so  that  an 
estimate  of  the  material  and  labor  required  can 
be  made  to  guide  the  managers  of  the  property 
in  providing  for  the  outlay  for  the  following  year. 

Inspections  should  cover  the  following  points: 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  465 

Bridge  abutments,  piers,  arched  culverts,  stone 
box  culverts  and  retaining  walls  should  be  ex- 
amined for  indications  of  settlement  in  the  foun- 
dation, cracks  in  the  face,  in  the  seams  or  in  the 
stone,  and  the  walls  getting  out  of  line  on  ac- 
count of  the  pressure  of  the  embankment  being 
too  great  for  their  strength.  The  foundations 
should  have  careful  inspection  to  detect  scour  of 
the  stream,  and  the  rip  rap  should  be  examined 
to  see  if  it  is  of  sufficient  quantity  and  so  placed 
that  during  a  freshet  the  current  will  not  wash  it 
away.  Iron  pipe  culverts  should  be  inspected  to 
find  if  there  is  any  opportunity  of  the  water  pass- 
ing through  the  embankment  along  the  outside 
of  the  pipes,  thus  undermining  the  embankment. 
The  outlets  of  iron  pipe  culverts,  stone  arch  and 
box  culverts,  require  inspection  to  ascertain 
whether  the  paving  is  being  undermined  and 
washed  down.  The  inlets  to  these  openings  re- 
quire inspection  to  ascertain  whether  they  are 
liable  to  be  choked  up  by  freshets  bringing  down 
brush  and  drift  which  will  cause  the  water  to 
flow  over  the  embankment. 

All  dirt  and  rubbish  on  bridge  seats  should  be 
noted. 

Timber  structures  should  be  carefully  exam- 
ined for  decayed  and  broken  members,  and  all 
such  members  noted  and  their  exact  location 
given  for  the  guidance  of  the  foreman  of  the 
gang  making  the  repairs.  The  bracing  or  framed 
bents,  both  longitudinal  and  sway  bracing,  should 
be  carefully  examined  to  ascertain  that  they 

30    Vol.  13 


466        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

are  securely  fastened  to  the  sills,  caps,  plumb 
and  batter  posts. 

Wooden  truss  bridges  should  be  examined  for 
cracks  in  the  cast  iron  attachments,  such  as 
angle  blocks,  chord  boxes,  and  post  shoes;  any 
indication  of  the  displacement  of  these  members 
should  be  carefully  looked  for;  also  indications 
of  openings  in  bottom  chords  or  crushing  of  the 
timber  in  the  top  of  the  chord;  shearing  of  clamp 
daps  should  be  noted  and  the  nuts  on  all  bolts 
should  be  tight.  The  truss  rods  must  be  kept 
taut  but  not  strained,  and  their  adjustment  made 
when  there  is  no  load  on  the  structure.  The 
camber  should  be  true  and  uniform  for  both  the 
top  and  bottom  chord.  Under  a  live  load  the 
deflection  should  not  be  excessive  and  should  be 
the  same  for  both  trusses,  this  should  be  tested 
by  an  instrument.  As  provision  should  always 
be  made  for  the  protection  of  wooden  structures 
from  fire,  barrels  of  water  or  other  extinguishing 
devices  are  kept  in  proximity  to  wooden  bridges 
and  other  structures.  In  making  inspections 
these  should  be  noted,  to  ascertain  that  the 
means  for  preventing  or  extinguishing  fires  are 
kept  in  proper  order. 

When  inspecting  iron  bridges,  the  inspectors 
should  ascertain  if  the  bed  plates  and  rollers  are 
clean,  and  if  the  rollers  stand  so  they  will  move 
squarely  back  and  forth  with  the  truss;  the  con- 
nections between  floor  beams  and  trusses  must  be 
examined  for  splitting  of  the  connecting  angles; 
in  case  of  suspended  floor  beams  particular  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  see  if  they  are  tight  against 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  467 

the  post  bed  or  free  to  move.  The  tension  can  be 
tested  by  springing  the  tension  members.  Exami- 
nation should  be  made  to  detect  distortion  or 
crookedness  in  members.  Counter,  lateral  and 
vibration  rods  must  be  kept  taut  but  should  not 
be  strained,  and  mus£  be  adjusted  when  there  is 
no  load  on  the  bridge.  The  center  line  of  all 
tension  members  should  be  in  the  line  of  the 
strain.  The  posts,  lateral  struts  and  top  chords 
should  be  straight  and  free  from  twists.  Field 
driven  rivets  should  be  lightly  sounded  to  see 
that  they  are  tight,  and  any  movement  indicated 
by  rust  streaks  or  other  signs  in  any  of  the  mem- 
bers should  be  noted.  The  camber  of  both  the 
top  and  bottom  chords  should  be  regular  and 
similar.  Under  a  live  load  the  deflection  should 
not  be  'excessive  and  should  be  the  same  for  the 
two  trusses  in  the  same  span. 

Buildings  and  platforms  should  be  inspected  for 
decay  in  sills,  and  the  foundations  should  be  ex- 
amined; defects  in  chimneys  should  be  looked 
for  and  the  condition  of  the  roof,  the  fastenings 
for  doors  and  windows  require  careful  examina- 
tion. The  condition  of  the  floors,  siding  and 
plastering  must  also  be  noted. 

Coal  sheds  and  water  tanks  should  be  inspected 
for  decayed  timber  and  defects  in  foundations. 

Overhead  bridges  for  highways  require  the 
same  inspection  as  truss  bridges. 

The  foreman  of  the  section  gang  should  go  over 
his  section  during  and  after  each  rain  storm,  and 
not  only  carefully  examine  the  roadbed,  but  the 
bridges  and  culverts;  he  should  remove  drift  from 


488      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  openings  and  any  loose  brush  and  drift  which 
is  liable  to  be  washed  down  and  stop  up  a  culvert 
or  drain;  the  tendency  of  streams  to  change  their 
channel  should  always  be  carefully  considered; 
the  extreme  high  water  should  be  marked  in  a 
permanent  manner  and  the  engineer  advised  so 
he  can  take  the  elevation.  After  the  water  has 
run  off  the  section  foreman  should  again  look 
over  the  openings  for  damage  done  to  founda- 
tions, rip  rap,  the  outlets  of  culverts  and  for  any 
tendency  of  the  water  to  pass  through  an  em- 
bankment on  the  outside  of  a  pipe  or  stone  cul- 
vert. 

From  the  data  secured  during  the  fall  inspec- 
tion, estimates  of  material  and  the  cost  of  labor 
required  to  make  the  improvements  and  renewals 
are  made.  These  estimates  are  presented  to  the 
managers  of  the  property  who  decide  upon  the 
work  which  will  be  done  during  the  following 
season,  and  the  material  is  ordered  for  such  new 
structures  or  repairs  as  the  managers  decide  up- 
on. The  material  is  delivered  as  directed  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Bridges  and  Buildings,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  have  as  small  an  amount  of  money 
as  possible  tied  up  in  material  laying  in  yards, 
and  on  the  right  of  way  where  it  is  liable  to  be 
destroyed  by  fire  or  to  be  stolen.  There  should 
however,  be  a  sufficient  supply  of  material  at  di- 
vision headquarters  to  make  small  repairs  to 
bridges  in  case  of  washouts  or  other  accidents. 
The  material  for  repairs  to  large  bridges  caused 
by  accidents  such  as  fires,  freshets,  or  collisions, 
should  be  kept  at  the  general  headquarters  of  the 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  469 

road.  This  method  reduces  the  amount  of  idle 
money  locked  up  in  material  to  a  minimum; 
where  the  railway  system  is  a  large  one,  material 
for  extensive  repairs  to  large  structures  can  be 
kept  at  two  or  more  points. 

The  records  kept  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Bridges  and  Buildings  should  give  the  date  when 
the  piling  was  driven  and  the  length  from  the 
point  to  the  cut  off,  so  that  he  can  judge  as  to 
the  security  of  the  foundation.  The  date  when 
all  sills,  plumb  and  batter  posts,  caps,  corbels, 
stringers,  ties  and  guard  rails  were  placed  in 
bridges  should  be  kept  in  a  convenient  manner 
for  ready  reference,  and  this  record  book  should 
be  taken  along  when  the  inspections  are  being 
made. 

The  first  aim  of  the  Superintendent  of  Bridges 
and  Buildings  should  be  to  secure  a  good  founda- 
tion for  all  his  repair  work;  to  keep  the  structure 
thoroughly  braced  both  while  making  the  repairs 
and  afterward. 

All  joints  should  be  made  to  fit  snug  and  the 
bearing  should  not  come  on  one  corner  or  edge 
of  a  stick  of  timber,  but  should  come  evenly  over 
the  whole  section  of  the  stick  as  a  plumb  post  in 
a  trestle  or  a  diagonal  or  a  member  of  the  top  or 
bottom  chords  of  a  Howe  truss.  The  caps  of  a 
pile  bent  or  the  sills  and  caps  of  a  framed  bent 
should  be  square  with  the  track  on  a  tangent  and 
radial  to  the  track  curve.  No  repair  work  should 
be  allowed  which  throws  the  strain  on  a  member 
outside  of  its  center  line,  thus  tending  to  bend  or 
buckle  the  member. 


470        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

In  truss  bridges  the  floor  beams  should  always 
be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  track,  this  not 
only  makes  better  riding  track,  but  distributes 
the  load  uniformly  between  each  truss.  The 
main  and  counter  braces  should  always  be  in 
their  proper  condition  on  the  angle  blocks  before 
adjusting  the  truss  rods. 

"  When  the  span  has  the  required  cambor  and 
the  counter  braces  are  tight,  those  individual  rods 
in  each  panel  which  may  be  slack  should  be 
tightened  until  each  rod  in  the  panel  is  strained 
in  proportion  to  its  area.  When  the  rods  are 
slack,  counter  braces  loose,  and  camber  less  than 
required,  commencing  at  first  set  of  rods  at  either 
end  of  truss,  tighten  them  evenly,  not  enough  to 
buckle  the  counter  braces,  bat  enough  to  so  firmly 
fix  the  ends  of  these  against  the  angle  block  that 
an  ordinary  blow  with  a  maul  will  not  start  them 
from  proper  position,  following  which,  treat  the 
first  panel  at  the  opposite  end  of  truss  in  the 
same  manner.  This  done,  adjust  the  second 
panels  from  each  end,  and  so  on,  working  alter- 
nately from  each  end  of  the  truss  toward  the 
center  until  each  set  of  rods  has  been  put  in  ad- 
justment. Regardless  of  how  much  care  has  been 
taken  to  get  the  tension  on  all  rods  even,  many 
rods  will  be  found  to  require  a  second  adjustment 
in  order  to  leave  the  truss  in  perfect  condition. 

"Be  very  careful  not  to  overstrain  small  rods 
by  exerting  too  much  force  on  them. 

1  'The  force  required  to  tighten  a  large  rod  is 
sufficient  to  break  a  small  one,  and  good  judg- 
ment should  be  exercised  to  the  end  that  each 
rod  be  strained  only  in  proportion  to  its  size. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  471 

"Do  not  attempt  to  increase  the  camber  in  a 
span  by  tightening  the  rods  if  the  counter  braces 
are  all  tight  against  the  angle  blocks.  While  it 
is  possible  to  increase  the  camber  in  this  manner, 
the  result  is  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  high 
initial  strain  on  the  rods,  buckled  counter  braces, 
broken  angle  blocks,  and  sheared  packing  keys 
and  clamps  in  the  chord,  each  and  all  of  which 
are  much  more  dangerous  than  want  of  camber. 

"In  practice  it  frequently  occurs  that  the  cam- 
ber can  be  somewhat  improved,  in  adjusting  a 
truss,  by  slacking  off  the  rods  slightly  in  three 
or  four  panels  each  side  of  the  center  of  the  truss, 
before  commencing  at  the  ends  of  the  truss  to 
finally  adjust  the  rods. 

"In  order  to  permit  the  angle  blocks  to  be  read- 
ily placed  in  position,  the  seats  for  same  in  the 
chords  are  frequently  framed  with  play  enough 
to  allow  them  to  move  slightly  from  their  orig- 
inal position  when  subjected  to  the  thrust  from 
the  main  braces,  the  bottom  angle  block  moving 
toward  the  end  of  the  truss,  and  the  top  angle 
block  toward  the  center  of  the  truss.  As  this  in- 
creases the  length  of  the  panel  in  the  direction 
of  the  main  brace,  and  shortens  it  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  counter  brace,  it  is  obvious  that,  in 
order  to  preserve  the  original  camber  of  the  truss, 
new  braces  should  be  provided  throughout,  but 
usually  the  movement  of  the  angle  block  is  so 
slight  that,  while  seriously  affecting  the  camber, 
the  angle  of  the  brace  is  not  changed  enough  to 
be  noticeable  as  regards  its  bearing  against  the 
angle  block. 


472      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

"In  such  cases  the  counter  braces  can  be  short- 
ened sufficiently  to  bring  the  truss  to  required 
camber  without  injurious  effect  on  the  truss. 

"In  no  instance  should  this  be  done  without  first 
receiving  the  sanction  of  the  Bridge  Superintend- 
ent. 

"In  adjusting  the  end  panel  rods  of  long  heavy 
trusses,  it  is  advisable  to  take  up  a  portion  of  the 
dead  load  by  means  of  a  screw  jack  placed  under 
the  panel  to  be  adjusted,  which  relieves  the  strain 
on  the  rods  and  assists  in  raising  the  truss  to  its 
proper  position. 

"The  object  in  doing  this  is  readily  apparent 
from  the  fact  that  the  wrench  can  be  applied  to 
only  one  rod  at  a  time,  and  unless  some  assist- 
ance is  given  it,  half  the  weight  of  the  truss  be- 
tween it  and  the  opposite  abutment  is  thrown 
upon  the  rod. 

"A  block  should  be  placed  between  the  jack 
and  the  chord  of  sufficient  length  and  strength  to 
distribute  the  thrust  from  the  jack  over  all  the 
strands  of  chord  to  avoid  any  movement  of  the 
strands  upon  one  another. 

"Always  remove  the  jack  before  allowing  trains 
to  pass  over  the  bridge. 

"When  jack  screws  cannot  be  used,  nuts  should 
be  turned  a  very  little  at  a  time  on  each  rod  in 
rotation.  Nuts  on  truss  rods  must  be  screwed  up 
by  applying  a  steady  pressure  to  the  wrench,  no 
advantage  being  taken  of  the  slack  between  the 
socket  and  nut  to  produce  a  blow  on  the  nut  by 
an  oscillating  movement  of  the  wrench,  as  it  not 
only  destroys  the  shape  of  the  nut,  but  has  a 
tendency  to  injure  both  nut  and  rod. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  473 

"Always  support  the  truss  by  a  post  or  bent 
placed  under  the  next  panel  before  removing  the 
end  panel  main  braces  and  the  old  abutment 
block,  and  do  not  remove  it  or  allow  trains  to 
pass  over  the  bridge  until  the  new  block  and 
braces  are  in  place  and  the  truss  is  again  in  ad- 
justment. 

" Where  a  broken  angle  block  in  bottom  chord 
is  to  be  replaced  with  a  new  one,  a  post  or  bent 
must  be  placed  under  the  next  panel  point  to- 
ward the  center  of  the  truss,  sufficiently  strong 
to  support  the  portion  of  the  truss  which  would 
otherwise  be  unsupported  if  the  braces  were  re- 
moved. When  it  is  impracticable  to  support  the 
truss  in  the  above  mentioned  manner,  two  rods 
should  be  provided  of  sufficient  length  to  run 
diagonally  and  in  line  with  the  counter  brace 
from  the  top  of  the  truss  over  the  panel  point  in 
which  the  angle  block  is  to  be  replaced,  to  the 
bottom  of  the  truss  under  the  next  panel  point 
toward  the  center  of  the  truss  with  heavy  wooden 
gibs  top  and  bottom. 

"The  gibs  must  extend  several  inches  beyond 
the  chord  on  each  side  and  have  holes  bored 
through  them  at  the  proper  angle,  so  that  when 
the  rods  are  in  place  there  will  be  one  on  each 
side  of  the  truss.  The  rods  are  to  be  tightened 
until  the  load  on  the  truss  rods  is  removed,  when 
the  main  and  counter  braces,  truss  rods  and 
angle  block  can  be  removed  and  replaced. 

"In  replacing  an  angle  block  in  the  top  chord 
support  the  panel  point  in  which  the  angle  block 
is  to  be  changed  in  the  same  manner,  taking  care 


474       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

to  leave  in  all  braces  which  do  not  abut  on  the 
angle  block  to  be  replaced. 

"No  train  should  be  allowed  to  cross  the  bridge 
until  the  truss  is  in  adjustment  and  the  support, 
if  from  the  ground,  is  removed. 

"Angle  blocks  are  frequently  broken  by  the 
shrinkage  in  the  timber  of  the  chord  allowing 
the  gib  to  bear  against  the  ends  of  the  angle 
block  tubes.  In  this  case  hard  wood  shims  of 
sufficient  thickness  must  be  placed  between  the 
gibs  and  chord  to  keep  the  gibs  away  from  the 
tubes.  In  doing  this  do  not  slack  the  truss  rods 
until  temporary  rods  passing  through  strong 
wooden  gibs  have  been  put  in  place,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  chord,  as  near  to  the  panel  point  as 
possible  to  keep  the  truss  in  shape  while  the  rods 
are  loose. 

"If  more  convenient  a  post  can  be  placed  under 
the  panel  point,  which  is  to  be  removed  before 
allowing  trains  to  cross,  and  truss  must  be  in 
adjustment  for  either  method  before  allowing 
trains  to  cross. 

"The  recurring  adjustment  of  the  truss  and  lat- 
eral rods  in  a  deck  truss,  and  the  inevitable 
reduction  in  the  distance  between  the  chords 
resulting  from  it,  makes  it  necessary  to  shorten 
the  transverse  braces  from  time  to  time  so  that 
they  may  not  be  excessively  strained.  They 
must  be  kept  tight,  but  not  tight  enough  to 
buckle  the  timber  or  displace  the  strands,  against 
which  they  abut  from  their  proper  position  in  the 
chord,  as  this  would  result  in  broken  keys  and 
clamps. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS.  475 

1  'Lateral  rods  must  always  be  kept  tight  enough 
so  that  an  ordinary  blow  with  a  maul  will  not 
start  the  ends  of  the  braces  from  position  on 
seats.  The  braces  must  be  sufficiently  well  fast- 
ened at  center  intersections  so  as  not  to  fall  out, 
even  though  rods  may  be  slack. 

"When  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  pile  driver  in  a 
through  span,  the  end  set  of  laterals  must  always 
be  in  place  for  the  passage  of  trains,  and  not 
more  than  two  intermediate  sets  of  bottom  or 
three  of  top  laterals  may  be  left  out  during  the 
passage  of  a  train. 

"When  strengthening  a  weak  chord  with  rein- 
forcing strands,  the  key-ways  must  be  framed  in 
both  chord  and  strand,  and  enough  new  laterals 
framed  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  having  out  at 
one  time  more  than  two  contiguous  sets  of  lat- 
erals during  the  passage  of  trains. 

"Speed  of  trains  must  be  very  slow  while  lat- 
eral system  is  incomplete. 

"Camber  blocks  must  always  fill  the  space  be- 
tween the  floor  beams  and  stringers,  so  that  each 
floor  beam  will  take  its  portion  of  the  load  on 
the  stringer."* 

When  it  is  necessary  to  reline  the  track  on 
bridges  the  engineer  should  give  the  centers  re- 
quired. 

Overhead  bridges  should  be  given  a  clearance 
of  22  feet  above  the  rail,  the  large  furniture  and 
vehicle  cars  having  a  height  of  14i  to  14f  feet 
from  the  rail  to  the  running  board;  all  structures 


Rules  of  Southern  Pacific  Company. 


476       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

having  a  less  clearance  should  be  raised;  if  this 
is  impracticable,  whips*  or  telltales  should  be 
placed  150  feet  each  side  of  the  approach  to  the 
structure. 

No  work  should  be  done  during  foggy  weather 
or  a  snow  storm,  and  the  bridge  foreman  and  his 
men  should  be  familiar  with  the  rules  of  the  op- 
erating department,  f 

*  Whips  are  knotted  cords  hanging  from  a  support  across  the 
track;  when  a  train  man  is  struck  by  them,  he  knows  it  is  neces- 
sary to  sit  down  on  the  running  board  of  the  car  or  get  between 
the  cars  to  avoid  being  struck  by  an  overhead  bridge  or  the  top 
work  of  a  through  bridge. 

f  Bridges  are  also  discussed  in  the  chapters  on  Construction 
and  Standards,  and  also  in  Appendix  L. 


CHAPTER  XL 

CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE    ACCOUNTS. 

No  treatise  on  the  construction  and  mainten- 
ance of  railways  would  be  complete  without  a 
reference  to  the  accounts  that  are  kept  and  the 
statistics  that  are  made  by  railway  companies  in 
regard  to  these  features.  The  field  is  a  large  one 
and,  on  systems  of  any  magnitude,  requires  the 
services  of  a  distinct  bureau  of  the  accounting 
department,  the  attaches  of  which  are  not  only 
found  at  headquarters,  but  scattered  along  the 
line.  This  bureau  keeps  account  of  every  item 
of  material  received  and  disbursed  and  of  all 
labor  expended.  It  ascertains  the  cost  of  each 
individual  structure  and  improvement,  and  keeps 
accurate  account  of  every  item  of  money  and 
labor  expended  on  structures  and  sections  of  the 
track,  distributing  them  to  appropriate  accounts. 
Minute  Classifications  of  Construction  and  Oper- 
ating Expenses  are  kept.  Thus  the  general  Con- 
struction Classification  is  made  up  of  accounts 
as  follows,  to  one  of  which  every  item  of  expen- 
diture on  Construction  is  charged:  Ballasting, 
Block  Signals,  Board  of  Construction  Force, 
Bridges,  Trestles  and  Culverts,  Buildings,  Fur- 
niture and  Fixtures,  Clearing  and  Grubbing, 
Construction  Supply  Depots,  Construction  Trains, 
Discount,  Docks  and  Wharves,  Electric  Light 

(477) 


478       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Plants,  Electric  Motive  Power  Plants,  Engineer- 
ing, Exchange,  Fences,  Frogs  and  Switches,  Gas- 
making  Plants,  Grading,  Interest,  Interlocking 
Switches,  Legal  Expenses,  Miscellaneous  Ex- 
penses, Miscellaneous  Track  Material,  Rails,  Eeal 
Estate,  Right  of  Way,  Road  Crossings  and  Signs, 
Rolling  Stock,  Shop  Machinery  and  Tools,  Sid- 
ings, Stationery  Bond  Shares  and  other  forms, 
Stock  Yards,  Telegraph,  Ties,  Tracklaying  and 
Surf acing,  Transportation  of  Material,  Transport- 
ation of  Men,  Tunnels,  Contra-Construction  Earn- 
ings. This  may  be  further  elaborated  as  the 
needs  of  railways  require.  The  Classification  of 
Operating  Expenses  (including  Maintenance)  is 
divided  into  four  grand  divisions  as  follows:  I. 
Maintenance  of  Way  and  Structures ;  II.  Main- 
tenance of  Equipment;  III.  Conducting  Trans- 
portation; IV.  General  Expenses.  These  main 
divisions  are  sub-divided  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  management  and  the  requirements  of  the 
Federal  and  State  Government  Commissions. 
Thus  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  re- 
quires "  Maintenance  of  Way  and  Structures  "  to 
be  sub-divided  into  ten  accounts,  to  one  of  which 
every  expenditure  on  Maintenance  of  Way  and 
Structures  is  charged;  viz.:  (1)  Repairs  of  road- 
way; (2)  Renewals  of  rails;  (3)  Renewals  of 
ties;  (4)  Repairs  and  renewals  of  bridges  and 
culverts;  (5)  Repairs  and  renewals  of  fences, 
road  crossings,  signs  and  cattle  guards;  (6)  Re- 
pairs and  renewals  of  buildings  and  fixtures; 
(7^  Repairs  and  renewals  of  docks  and  wharves; 
(8)  Repairs  and  Renewals  of  telegraph;  (9)  Sta- 
tionery and  printing;  (10)  Other  expenses. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE  ACCOUNTS.  479 

The  subject,  it  wilfthus  be  seen,  is  so  vast  that 
it  is  impossible  to  treat  it  adequately  in  one 
chapter.  The  reader  will,  however,  find  a  full 
exposition  of  it  in  the  author's  work  entitled, 
"Disbursements  of  Railwavs." 


CHAPTER    XII. 

MAINTENANCE   AND   OPERATION — WHAT   COST   IS    DE- 
PENDENT  UPON. 

[NOTE. — For  a  full  understanding  of  the  maintenance  and 
operation  of  railways,  a  knowledge  of  accounting  in  connection 
therewith  is  desirable.  The  reader  will  find  this  important 
branch  of  the  subject  in  the  book  "  Disbursements  of  Kail- 
ways."] 

The  tendency  of  railway  operations  from  the 
start  has  been  to  lessen  cost  and  reduce  rates. 

The  expense  of  maintaining  a  railroad  is 
dependent  upon  cost  of  material  and  labor,  con- 
dition of  the  property,  amount  and  kind  of  traffic, 
nature  of  the  climate,  character  of  bridges,  cul- 
verts, buildings  and  platforms,  nature  and 
adequacy  of  ballast  and  drainage,  and  finally  the 
weight  and  texture  of  the  rail.  These  comprise 
the  principal  items. 

Cost  of  conducting  traffic  depends  upon  the 
grade  and  alignment  of  road,  quantity  and  nature 
of  the  traffic,  adequacy  of  the  company's  facilities, 
cost  of  labor,  character  of  the  latter,  etc. 

The  maximum  price  is  paid  for  labor  in  Amer- 
ica; the  minimum  price  in  India. 

The  rapid  development  of  railways  in  America 
is  attributable  to  the  intelligence  and  economy 
exercised  in  their  construction  and  operation,  and 

(480) 


MAINTENANCES  AND  OPERATION.  481 

to  the  fortitude  of  railway  owners  and  the  skill 
and  boundless  ambition  of  railway  managers. 

A  railway,  like  the  human  body,  is  constantly 
undergoing  change,  yet  so  gradually  as  not  to  be 
noticeable.  Not  only  does  everything  wear  out, 
but  many  things  are  put  away  while  yet  stable 
to  give  place  to  something  better.  Thus  dimin- 
utive engines  have  been  supplanted.  This  last 
change  necessitated  a  better  roadbed,  heavier 
rails,  better  fastenings  and  stronger  bridges  and 
culverts. 

Track  scales  that  answered  every  requirement 
in  the  early  history  of  carriers  have  long  since 
been  replaced  by  others  capable  of  accommodat- 
ing greater  loads  and  longer  vehicles. 

Necessity  has  been  the  mother  of  invention. 
To  need  a  thing  has  been  to  induce  its  invention 
and  introduction.  This  is  seen  in  the  truss  bridge, 
the  swivel  truck  by  which  railway  vehicles  adjust 
themselves  readily  to  the  track,  the  equalizing 
beams  of  locomotives,  by  which  their  adhesion  is 
increased  and  their  hauling  capacity  multiplied, 
and  so  on,  and  in  an  incomprehensible  number  of 
ways,  improvements  in  railway  appliances  are 
not  confined  to  any  particular  department  of  the 
service.  They  cover  every  field,  from  the  tie 
used  to  the  form  of  check  with  which  dividends 
are  paid.  They  are  seen  in  the  substitution  of 
steel  for  iron;  of  the  fish  bar  for  the  old-fashioned 
chair;  of  sixty-ton  locomotives  for  those  that 
weighed  six;  in  improved  forms  of  axles,  springs, 
splices,  spikes,  signals,  the  tread  flange  and  center 

31    Vol.  13 


482        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

of  wheels,  and  other  appliances.  Each  in  its 
way  tended  to  render  transportation  quicker, 
safer  and  cheaper,  and  therefore  more  generally 
used. 

To  know  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  particular 
property  as  compared  with  another  property,  is 
not  to  possess  anything  of  value,  unless  we  have 
accompanying  details.  Greater  outlay  one  year 
may  be  offset  by  lowered  expenses  the  succeed- 
ing year.  Differences  are  also  occasioned  by 
varying  cost  of  material.  Use  occasions  wear 
and  tear;  hence  a  property  that  is  used  much 
wears  out  more  quickly  than  one  that  is  not.  To 
compare  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  two  or  more 
roads  intelligently,  we  must  know  how  far  the 
differences  are  inherent  and  how  far  the  result  of 
management  or  traffic. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  railways  is  relatively 
less  each  year.  This  is  due  to  the  better  estab- 
lishment of  the  roadbed,  cheaper  material,* 
higher  skilled  labor  and  kindred  causes. 

Effectiveness  requires  that  ultimate  perfection 
should  be  the  aim  of  railway  management.  Long 
delays  may  intervene,  and  many  makeshifts  based 
on  the  character  of  the  business  and  the  income 
of  the  property  adopted,  but  the  building  up  of 
the  property  to  a  perfect  standard  should  be  and 
is  the  aim.  It  involves  systematic  organization; 
a  machine  capable  of  intelligent  and  consecutive 

*In  Great  Britain  there  was  a  decrease  of  fifty-four  per  cent, 
in  the  cost  of  material  per  mile  of  road  in  1885  as  compared  with 
1876,  and  this  notwithstanding  the  increased  mileage  of  trains. 


MAINTENANCES  AND  OPERATION.  483 

action.  Nothing  creditable  or  permanent  can  be 
attained  in  any  other  way.  Work  without  sys- 
tem involves  the  affairs  of  a  railroad  in  the  same 
confusion  that  similar  work  involves  other  indus- 
tries. It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  in  the  history 
of  a  railway  to  see  the  greatest  perfection  at- 
tained in  one  branch  of  the  service  while  every- 
thing else  will  be  comparatively  crude. 

This  fact,  while  illustrating  capacities,  shows 
how  distinct  the  different  departments  of  a  rail- 
road are  from  each  other,  while  acting  in  unison 
for  the  attainment  of  a  common  end.  Men  are 
not  alike  blessed  with  wisdom,  experience  or 
capability.  The  ignorant,  the  dull,  the  obstinate 
and  the  vicious,  while  not  numerous  in  railway 
life,  still  abound.  They  are  stumbling  blocks  and 
retard  the  efforts  of  their  more  amiable  brothers. 
In  the  progress  of  work  on  a  railway  much  de- 
pends on  the  general  manager;  but  capability 
here  cannot  supply  the  place  of  mediocrity,  in- 
difference or  worth lessness  elsewhere.  To  over- 
come the  inertia,  there  must  be  active  co-operation 
throughout  every  part  of  a  property,  and  its  su- 
pervision must  be  wise,  intelligent,  faithful  and 
constant.  In  no  other  way  can  a  systematic  or- 
ganization be  built  up  or  maintained  or  the  best 
results  achieved. 

.  Unfortunately  we  have  no  means  of  fitting  men 
for  railway  business  as  we  have  for  making  law- 
yers and  doctors.  Railway  men  are  educated  in 
the  business  after  they  enter  the  service.  This 
involves  long  apprenticeship,  capable  instruction 


484       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

and  competent  instructors.  Over  every  depart- 
ment of  railway  service  there  must  extend  the 
active  supervision  of  a  single  man,  supplemented 
by  capable  assistants.  In  this  way  only  can  effi- 
ciency be  secured.  An  organization  thus  effected 
must  supplement  its  labors  by  exhibits  of  results, 
so  that  comparisons  may  be  made.  Without 
these  comparisons  it  will  oftentimes  be  impossi- 
ble to  distinguish  between  capable,  industrious 
and  economical  men  and  those  of  a  contrary 
character. 

In  railway  operations,  prevention  is  a  guiding 
factor.  To  stop  the  leak  in  the  roof  promptly, 
to  strengthen  the  crumbling  wall  without  delay, 
is  to  prevent  disintegration,  very  likely  accident. 
This  applies  to  the  track,  equipment,  buildings, 
bridges,  fences  and  other  structures  of  railways 
as  much  as  it  does  to  the  houses  of  citizens.  Not 
only  is  the  destruction  of  property  prevented  by 
such  measures,  but  cost  of  maintenance  is  reduced. 
Moreover,  if  action  is  not  prompt,  those  in- 
trusted with  the  work  become  disheartened  by 
the  great  expense  and  the  immensity  of  the  field. 

The  question  of  railway  maintenance  is  by  no 
means  simple.  Its  proper  understanding  in- 
volves a  knowledge  of  every  detail  of  railway 
construction  and  operation;  acquaintance  with 
the  topography  of  the  country,  its  climate,  popu- 
lation, financial  resources  and  distance  from  the 
base  of  supply.  We  must  also  be  familiar  with 
methods  of  taxation,  the  personnel  of  the  force, 
extent  and  nature  of  the  company's  appliances, 


MAINTENANCES  AND  OPERATION.  485 

and  the  amount  and  kind  of  its  traffic.  These 
are  fundamental.  Maintenance  means  some- 
thing more  than  preservation  of  the  track, 
bridges,  buildings  and  other  structures.  It  also 
means  the  building  up  and  maintaining  of  a 
competent  and  trustworthy  organization  and 
the  proper  grouping  of  forces,  without  which  a 
property  is  cumbersome  and  unwieldy. 

Features  incidental  to  railway  maintenance 
are  the  differences,  inherent  and  otherwise,  in 
railway  construction,  and  the  consequent  differ- 
ences in  cost  of  operating  and  maintaining  that 
follow.  They  form  a  part  of  the  question,  and 
therefore  engage  the  attention  of  those  con- 
cerned. Their  comprehension  is,  moreover,  neces- 
sary to  a  proper  comparison  of  results.  Because 
of  this  let  us  glance,  for  a  moment,  at  some  of 
the  differences  between  railroads. 

The  disbursements  of  a  railroad  are  influenced, 
favorably  or  otherwise,  by  the  peculiarities  of  the 
country  through  which  it  passes,  and  until  these 
are  determined  we  cannot  estimate  the  cost  of 
maintaining  or  operating.  The  circumstances  sur- 
rounding the  cost  of  constructing  a  road  first,  and 
operating  and  maintaining  it  afterward,  change 
with  every  succeeding  mile.  The  distinction  is 
more  marked  in  some  cases  than  in  others,  but  it 
exists  everywhere  and  at  all  times.  In  one  case 
it  will  be  the  difference  between  a  road  located 
upon  the  summit  of  a  mountain  and  another 
located  in  a  valley,  or  between  one  that  surmounts 
a  steep  and  dangerous  ascent  and  one  constructed 


486       SHILLING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

upon  a  perfectly  level  plain.  In  another  case  it 
will  depend  on  the  elasticity  of  the  roadbed,  the 
sufficiency  of  the  drainage,  the  quantity  and  qual- 
ity of  the  ballast,  or  the  manner  in  which  the 
latter  is  applied.  Instances  of  difference  have  no 
limit.  However  small,  they  affect  the  cost  of 
maintaining  and  working. 

The  differences  in  cost  will  vary  from  a  few 
cents  per  mile  to  hundreds  of  dollars.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  difference  can  only  be  anticipated  by 
a  careful  survey  of  the  property.  In  some  cases 
it  will  be  so  marked  as  to  make  itself  perceptible 
to  the  dullest  comprehension;  in  others  it  will 
be  discernible  only  to  experts  in  such  matters. 

A  road  with  costly  bridges,  high  embankments, 
precipitous  grades,  sharp  curves  and  extended 
tunnels  will,  it  is  manifest,  cost  more  to  main- 
tain and  operate  than  a  line  devoid  of  these 
costly  features. 

In  considering  relative  cost,  as  affected  by  the 
peculiarities  of  a  country,  I  can  only  notice  the 
more  important  differences.  Generally,  it  may 
be  stated  as  true  that  a  road  traversing  a  level 
country,  adapted  to  grazing  or  agriculture,  is 
more  cheaply  worked  than  a  line  differently 
located.  Its  drainage  may  be  difficult,  and  a 
supply  of  ballast  not  easily  obtainable,  except  at 
considerable  expense,  but  such  objections  are 
felt  more  or  less  on  all  roads.  They  are  more 
than  offset  by  the  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  on 
a  line  located  in  a  hilly  country.  Moreover,  a 
company  whose  property  is  favorably  located,  as 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  487 

regards  grades  and  alignment,  can  haul  the  max- 
imum load.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  upon 
a  line  favorably  located  a  locomotive  can  per- 
form three  times  the  service  possible  upon  a  line 
unfavorably  situated  in  this  respect.  Moreover, 
wear  and  tear  of  equipment  is  less.  Accidents 
are  also  diminished.  The  expense  of  keeping  the 
road  in  good  condition  is  much  lighter.  Many 
other  differences  might  be  cited. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  drainage  of  a  road 
which  winds  around  the  edge  of  a  mountain 
range  is  more  easily  provided  for  than  on  one 
traversing  an  alluvial  plain. 

The  first  presents  highly  favorable  circum- 
stances for  economical  and  effective  drainage,  the 
latter  rarely  does.  To  a  superficial  observer,  the 
difference  in  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance 
between  a  track  susceptible  of  perfect  drainage 
and  one  that  is  not  is  never  rightly  estimated. 
Imperfect  drainage,  besides  being  an  evil  in 
itself,  implies  collateral  evils.  The  roadbed  is 
hard  to  maintain,  ties  rapidly  decay,  rails  speedily 
become  unfit  for  use.  A  large  force,  relatively, 
must  also  be  kept  constantly  employed,  while 
frequent  renewals  of  the  track  itself  are  required. 
Cost  is  multiplied  in  many  directions. 

For  these  reasons  engineers  are  careful  to  make 
provision  for  good  drainage,  whenever  possible. 
In  many  instances,  however,  the  nature  of  the 
soil  or  the  character  of  the  country  render  it  im- 
possible. In  such  cases  the  burden  on  the  carrier 
becomes  a  permanent  one. 


488      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

No  other  phase  of  railway  operations  possesses 
such  a  variety  of  aspects  as  the  question  of  drain- 
age. None  requires  greater  knowledge  and  skill. 
It  is  not  only  essential  that  the  person  in  charge 
possesses  the  practical  qualities  of  an  engineer, 
which  enable  him  to  utilize  to  the  utmost  the 
topographical  features  of  the  country,  but  he  must 
understand  the  action  of  water  upon  different 
kinds  of  soil;  must  be  able  to  distinguish  between 
that  kind  of  soil  which  will  absorb  water  without 
especial  detriment  to  the  roadbed  and  that  which 
must  be  quickly  relieved  of  the  burden.  He  must 
also  understand  the  law  of  capillary  attraction 
and  take  necessary  measures  to  remove  the  track 
beyond  the  reach  of  its  influence. 

Questions  of  temperature  are  prime  factors.  In 
a  cold  region  the  cost  of  generating  steam  is 
greater  than  in  a  milder  climate.  The  load 
hauled  is  also  less,  while  broken  and  defective 
rails  and  damaged  machinery  and  appliances 
multiply  in  number  indefinitely.  Absence  of 
elasticity  in  a  frozen  roadbed  increases  wear  and 
tear  of  equipment  and  hastens  the  destruction 
of  track.  To  these  must  be  added  the  cost  of 
keeping  the  track  free  from  snow  and  ice  in  a 
cold  climate.  The  disbursements  on  this  latter 
account  appear  in  cost  of  snowplows,  supplies, 
wages,  use  of  locomotives  and  cars,  added  cost  of 
fences  and  snowsheds,  and,  finally,  in  delay  of 
business.  Upon  many  lines  located  within  the 
snow  belt  the  expense  of  keeping  the  track  free 
from  snow  and  ice  forms  a  considerable  propor- 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  489 

tion  of  the  total  cost.  From  this  and  kindred 
expenses,  lines  further  south  are  happily  free. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  latter  have  their 
own  disadvantages,  such  as  rapid  deterioration 
from  insects  and  climatic  causes. 

Differences  in  cost  of  fencing  also  affect  mainte- 
nance and  operations.  Upon  some  roads  no  fences 
are  practically  required  in  America;  upon  others 
their  erection  and  maintenance  are  difficult  and 
expensive.  A  company  contiguous  to  supplies  is 
put  to  less  expense  for  fence  material  than  a  line 
located  at  a  distance.  Moreover,  the  laws  defin- 
ing a  legal  fence  are  not  the  same  in  every  state. 
Relative  cost  is  thus  further  complicated. 

Cost  of  maintaining  and  operating  is  vitally 
affected  by  the  number  and  character  of  the 
grades.  Every  foot  of  ascent  entails  extra  ex- 
pense. A  line  that  requires  a  heavy  engine  to 
move  a  minimum  load  cannot  be  worked  as 
cheaply  as  a  line  more  favorably  located.  Cost 
varies  upon  railroads  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  country,  the  judgment  exercised  in  locating 
the  line  and  the  money  expended  in  overcoming 
construction  obstacles.  Experts  do  not  agree  as 
to  the  ratio  of  expense  each  foot  of  elevation 
occasions,  but  it  is  relatively  much  greater  when 
the  rise  is  abrupt  than  when  gradual.  Thus,  cost 
of  a  maximum  grade  of  one  hundred  feet  to  the 
mile  is  more  than  where  the  grade  is  fifty  feet. 
Nor  is  the  collateral  outlay  which  gradients  entail 
relatively  the  same.  Differences  in  cost  of  main- 
taining track  are  particularly  noticeable.  Cost 


490       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

of  fuel,  lubricants  and  wear  and  tear  of  machinery 
are  also  heightened. 

The  curvature  of  a  track,  hardly  less  than  its 
grades,  affects  the  cost  of  maintaining  and  work- 
ing, though  the  fact  is  not  so  generally  recognized. 

Another  important  feature  is  alignment.  De- 
fective alignment  adds  to  the  cost  of  property  in 
the  first  place  and  the  expense  of  maintaining 
and  working  it  afterward.  The  inconvenience 
continues  without  sensible  diminution  until  the 
mistake  is  remedied,  but  as  defective  alignment 
oftentimes  involves  questions  of  management 
and  policy  as  well  as  cost  of  correction,  it  follows 
that  such  defects  are  generally  of  much  longer 
standing  than  they  would  be  if  they  came  within 
the  duty  of  the  practical  men  who  look  after  the 
track.  An  acute  defect  these  latter  may  remedy, 
but  errors  in  alignment  affecting  considerable 
sections  of  a  line  they  may  not  notice,  or  if  they 
do,  are  oftentimes  unable  to  demonstrate  the 
practicability  of  their  views. 

Many  other  differences  affect  cost.  Thus  a 
company  that  is  compelled,  either  by  the  nature 
of  its  traffic  or  the  peculiarities  of  its  line,  to  sever 
and  reunite  its  trains  at  intervals  is  put  to  greater 
expense  for  maintenance  and  operation  than  one 
that  does  not.  This  expense  will  vary  according 
to  the  length  of  the  haul,  the  amount  and  char- 
acter of  the  load  and  the  particulars  of  a  local 
nature  that  affect  the  transfer.  Such  expenses 
represent  in  a  measure,  it  may  be  said,  the  differ- 
ence between  cost  of  handling  through  and  local 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  491 

business.  However,  many  terminal  expenses 
involved  by  the  latter  are  wanting. 

Relative  cost  is  affected  by  density  of  population, 
more  especially  the  frequency  with  which  towns, 
villages  and  cities  occur.  It  is  also  influenced  by 
the  number  and  character  of  the  tunnels,  viaducts 
and  road  crossings.  Every  tunnel,  viaduct  and 
road  crossing  increases  cost  in  the  same  sense 
that  a  line  dotted  with  signals  and  crowded  with 
watchmen  cannot  be  worked  as  cheaply  as  a  road 
running  through  a  country  where  these  precau- 
tions are  unnecessary. 

Anything  that  interferes  with  the  free  move- 
ment of  trains,  or  that  increases  or  diminishes  the 
speed  best  suited  to  the  load  hauled,  adds  to  cost. 
Thus  the  amount  of  fuel  required  by  a  locomotive 
to  start  its  load  is  relatively  much  greater  than 
the  amount  required  to  keep  it  in  motion  once  it 
is  started.  Experts  have  estimated  the  loss  of 
power  occasioned  by  stopping  a  train  traveling 
at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles  an  hour  as  suffi- 
cient to  carry  it  a  mile  forward  on  its  journey. 
Consumption  of  fuel,  it  is  also  to  be  remembered, 
is  only  lessened,  not  avoided,  while  a  locomotive 
is  thus  idle.  Further  than  this,  the  wages  of  em- 
ployes experience  no  abatement,  while  the  extra 
cost  of  wear  and  tear  of  road  and  equipment,  in- 
cident to  the  interruption,  are  considerable  in 
every  case.  Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  anything 
which  retards  the  business  of  a  railroad,  increases 
its  cost  or  multiplies  the  restrictions  under  which 
its  trains  are  operated,  adds  to  the  cost  of  doing 


492      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

business  and  lessens  by  just  so  much  the  facili- 
ties of  the  public.  The  interests  of  the  public,  not 
less  than  owners,  require  that  railroads  should 
be  harassed  by  as  few  restrictions  as  possible. 


Particulars  of  construction  act  and  react  on 
the  operating  expenses  of  railroads.  Cost  is 
never  the  same  relatively  upon  any  two  lines. 

The  same  influences  that  contribute  to  swell 
the  first  cost  of  a  road  serve  in  the  majority  of 
cases  to  increase  its  operating  expenses  afterward. 

In  investigating  the  subject  of  railway  econ- 
omy, each  enterprise  must  be  judged  according 
to  its  environment.  In  no  other  way  can  its  sta- 
tus be  accurately  ascertained. 

The  causes  which  produce  differences  in  the 
cost  of  operating  properties  are  so  numerous  and 
so  complex  that  I  can  only  notice  the  more  im- 
portant. This  partial  analysis  will  be  useful,  not 
for  the  information  of  experts,  but  for  those 
whose  facilities  for  observing  the  multitudinous 
details  of  railway  operation  are  limited. 

The  influences  that  occasion  differences  in  cost 
of  operating  open  up  incidentally  the  whole  vista 
of  railway  administration.  I  shall  consider  but 
one  phase  here  and  only  the  more  salient  features 
of  this. 

And  first,  in  regard  to  supplies.  To  ascertain 
the  cost  of  these,  including  fuel,  the  expense  of 
handling  and  the  cost  of  transportation  must  be 
added  to  first  cost. 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  493 

The  first  cost  of  fuel  is  very  small  in  many 
cases,  but  the  expense  of  hauling  and  the  absence 
of  economical  facilities  for  unloading  from  the 
cars,  and  afterward  placing  it  upon  the  tenders, 
makes  the  final  cost  very  great,  much  greater 
even  than  is  discernible  from  the  accounts.  The 
expense  is  aggravated  in  the  case  of  many  com- 
panies by  their  having  no  return  load  for  their 
cars.  Much  of  the  cost  of  fuel  appears  in  the 
returns  under  foreign  headings  and  thus  remains 
unknown.  In  portraying  the  expenses  of  a  rail- 
road we  cannot,  if  we  would,  group  in  the 
accounts  or  elsewhere,  under  one  head,  all  the 
expenses  incident  to  a  particular  article  of 
material. 

To  the  first  cost  we  must  add  the  shrinkage, 
and  in  the  case  of  fuel  and  oils  this  is  very  great. 
The  cost  of  substituting  new  material  for  old,  in 
the  case  of  repairs  and  renewals,  must  also  be 
remembered.  With  many  classes  of  material  the 
cost  of  substitution  equals  or  exceeds  the  first 
cost.  It  is  considerable  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances.  The  disbursements,  for  instance, 
that  attend  the  substitution  of  new  track  mate- 
rial for  eld  material  of  the  same  kind  are  very 
great.  This  is  noticeably  so  with  rails  and  ties. 
It  is  measurably  the  same  with  machinery  and 
fixtures  that  appertain  to  bridges,  buildings  and 
other  structures. 

To  ascertain  the  cost  of  any  kind  of  material 
we  must  consider  it  relatively.  Thus,  in  weigh- 
ing the  value  of  a  particular  quality  of  fuel  we 


494        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

must  consider  its  heating  capacity  and  effect 
upon  the  locomotive.  These,  therefore,  and  not 
the  price  asked  for  the  coal  by  the  dealer,  finally 
determine  the  cost  of  the  article. 

To  purchase  an  article  without  considering  the 
collateral  effect  is,  in  many  cases,  to  occasion  a 
loss  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  main  transaction. 

Ability  to  pay  for  material  promptly  affects 
sensibly  the  price  for  which  it  can  be  bought. 

Interest  on  money  invested  in  supplies  also 
forms  a  part  of  cost. 

The  time  expended  upon  an  article,  and  the 
accounting  it  involves,  must  be  considered;  nor 
must  the  cost  of  storage  and  the  outlay  for  in- 
surance be  overlooked. 

Thus,  a  multiplicity  of  things  are  to  be  consid- 
ered before  the  final  cost  of  an  article  can  be 
known. 

Roads  operated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
markets  buy  more  cheaply  than  lines  located  at 
a  distance.  Their  presence  exercises  a  favorable 
influence  on  the  dealer.  They  are,  moreover,  able 
to  keep  better  posted  in  reference  to  the  market. 

A  company  that  concentrates  its  purchases  can 
buy  upon  more  advantageous  terms  than  one  that 
intrusts  its  purchases  to  a  number  of  persons  or 
to  officers  not  skilled  in  the  way  of  buying 
cheaply.* 


*  No  one  ever  connected  with  a  railway  company  in  a  re- 
sponsible position,  it  may  be  said  in  this  connection,  can  have 
failed  to  be  impressed  by  the  great  importance  which  the  re- 
sponsible managers  of  railroads  attach  to  the  organization  and 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  495 

The  necessities  of  a  company,  real  or  imagi- 
nary, sometimes  induce  it  to  purchase  supplies 
of  inferior  quality.  When  this  is  so  the  loss 
occasioned  thereby  can  only  be  traced  indirectly, 
as  in  the  case  of  fuel,  already  referred  to.  At 
different  periods  in  the  history  of  railroads  the 
rails  were,  in  many  cases,  of  inferior  quality. 
Times  were  not  propitious,  business  was  unprof- 
itable and  the  companies  were  poor.  The  desire 
to  buy  at  a  low  figure,  therefore,  was  strong.  This 
was  particularly  true  of  the  intermediate  period 
between  the  use  of  iron  and  Bessemer  steel.  Man- 
ufacturers had,  to  a  certain  extent,  lost  the  art 
of  making  the  former  cheaply  and  well  and  were 
not  yet  able  to  produce  the  latter  at  a  rate  the 
railroads  were  able  to  pay.  The  effect  of  the  use 
of  poor  rails  at  this  time  was  quickly  discernible.* 
It  was  seen  in  many  ways  outside  of  the  cost  of 
keeping  the  track  in  repair.  It  was  perceptible 
in  the  disbursements  for  injuries;  in  the  fees  of 
coroners  and  surgeons;  in  the  account  for  losses 
and  damages  to  property;  in  expenditures  for 
legal  services,  nurses  and  medicines;  in  repairing 
broken  down  bridges  and  culverts;  in  renewals 

performance  of  the  duties  connected  with  the  purchase  of  sup- 
plies; to  the  limiting  of  the  purchases  to  as  few  officials  as 
possible,  and  to  the  placing  in  such  positions  only  men  experi- 
enced in  the  wants  of  railroads  and  in  the  knack  of  buying 
cheaply;  men  withal  accustomed  to  the  discharge  of  acts  of 
trust  and  of  long  tried  and  approved  integrity. 

*  The  length  of  time  a  rail  will  last  is  dependent  (even  upon 
a  line  having  light  traffic)  upon  its  quality,  the  care  with 
which  it  is  laid,  the  number  and  quality  of  the  ties  and  the 
character  of  the  roadbed. 


496      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  R^ULWAYS. 

of  equipment,  machinery  and  tools;  in  outlay  for 
labor  of  various  kinds;  in  fuel  used,  and,  finally, 
in  diminished  receipts. 

Many  companies  were  slow  in  discovering  the 
loss  occasioned  by  the  use  of  poor  rails,  and  not 
a  few  were  dilatory  in  effecting  a  remedy  after 
the  discovery.  Why?  Because  it  requires  a 
knowledge  of  railways  that  every  proprietor  does 
not  possess,  to  enable  him  to  appreciate  the  fact 
that  unless  he  maintains  a  good  roadbed  and 
track  favorable  results  will  not  long  attend  the 
operations  of  his  property. 

The  smoothness  and  elasticity  of  a  track  affect 
directly  the  cost  of  keeping  the  rolling  stock  in 
condition,  so  that  the  cost  of  a  poor  track  is  quite 
as  apparent  in  expenditures  for  keeping  the  equip- 
ment in  serviceable  order  as  in  the  disbursements 
for  the  track  itself. 

Only  an  experienced  and  sagacious  manager 
can  withstand  the  seductive  glamour  of  an  arti- 
cle of  prime  necessity  offered  at  a  low  rate.  The 
fact  that  its  ultimate  cost,  if  of  poor  .quality,  will 
be  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  temporary  saving 
is  lost  sight  of.  The  immediate  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  operating  and  the  glory  of  effecting  the 
reduction  is  too  great  for  a  weak  man  to  with- 
stand. This  would  not  be  the  case  to  the  extent 
it  is  if  so  great  a  proportion  of  the  loss  suffered 
in  consequence  of  the  purchase  of  inferior  mate- 
rial were  not  covered  up  under  foreign  headings 
and  remained,  therefore,  unsuspected.  The  track 
of  a  railway  is  the  largest  single  expense,  and  it 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  -497 

is  in  connection  with  this  that  the  greatest,  and 
in  many  instances  the  most  unadvised,  efforts  at 
economy  are  attempted.  The  harm  that  ensues 
is  apparent  in  collateral  expenses,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  the  amount  of  these  even 
approximately.  Actual  outlay  for  track  involves 
the  cost  of  transporting  the  new  material  and  the 
removal  of  the  old,  the  cost  of  loading  and  un- 
loading, the  expense  of  handling,  the  withdrawal 
of  the  old  material  and  the  insertion  of  the  new 
in  the  track;  the  value  of  the  new  supplies,  less 
the  amount  received  for  the  old;  the  material 
destroyed  and  injured  in  making  renewals;  the 
wear  and  tear  of  tools;  in  the  delay  of  business, 
and  the  increased  wear  and  tear  arising  from 
imperfect  alignment  of  track  which  the  changes 
temporarily  occasion.  These  are  the  principal 
items.  Their  cost  to  a  company  cannot,  in 
every  case,  be  ascertained,  but  whatever  the 
amount  may  be  it  is  aggravated  by  the  use  of 
poor  rails,  whether  inadvertently  or  otherwise. 
It  is  only  by  keeping  such  facts  in  mind  that  we 
can  appreciate  the  importance  to  a  company  of 
purchasing  good  material.  Only  a  wealthy  com- 
pany, it  is  apparent,  can  do  otherwise  without 
endangering  its  safety. 

What  I  have  said  in  relation  to  inferior  rails 
applies  also  to  inferior  ties.  A  poor  rail  may  be 
sold,  but  a  tie  is  practically  worthless  when  no 
longer  fit  for  use  in  the  track.*  Besides  the  fact 

*Huntington,  in  his  unique  treatise  on  railroad  track,  how- 
ever, points  out,  though  in  a  somewhat  forced  way,  some  of  the 
32    Vol.  13 


498      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

that  a  worn-out  tie  possesses  no  value,  its  removal 
is  difficult.  The  alignment  of  the  track  is  also 
seriously  disturbed.* 

The  expenses  attending  a  poor  bridge  are  rela- 
tively greater  than  those  of  a  poor  rail  or  tie. 
The  cost  of  removing  such  a  structure  may, 
indeed,  exceed  the  original  outlay.  Leaving  out 
of  consideration,  however,  the  cost  of  mainte- 
nance of  cheap  bridges,  the  incidental  outlay  they 
involve  for  persons  killed  or  injured,  property 
destroyed  or  damaged  and  the  injury  suffered  by 
equipment  (to  say  nothing  of  loss  of  revenue  a 
company  suffers  by  the  distrust  engendered  in  the 
mind  of  the  community)  is  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  saving  effected  by  the  erection  of  an  unsafe 
structure  of  this  kind. 

In  reference  to  structures  of  a  temporary  char- 
acter, such  as  depots,  platforms,  roundhouses, 
workshops  and  water  stations,  that  we  find 

uses  to  which  old  and  worn-out  ties  may  be  put,  namely:  "  To 
patch  temporarily  broken  fences;  to  make  footings  for  washing 
embankments;  for  temporary  platforms  for  piling  rails;  fuel  for 
drying  sand  at  sand  stations;  fuel  for  sectionmen.  Sawing  up 
old  ties  for  wood  is  also  profitable  to  a  company  in  many  locali- 
ties." They  may  also  be  used  by  a  company  for  starting  fires 
and  other  purposes. 

*  Ties  manufactured  from  what  we  call  soft  woods  are  not 
only  not  able  to  withstand  the  wear  and  tear  of  a  heavy  busi- 
ness, but  they  decay  much  more  quickly  than  oak  and  other 
hard  wood  ties.  The  cost,  however,  of  transporting  the  latter 
and  inserting  them  in  the  track  is  not  greater  than  for  the 
former;  it  is,  therefore,  manifestly  for  the  interest  of  every 
company  to  use  the  latter  when  the  difference  in  the  purchase 
price  is  not  greater  than  the  subsequent  difference  in  the  length 
of  time  the  ties  will  last. 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  499 

clustered  about  many  new  enterprises,  the  inci- 
dental loss  to  the  company  erecting  them  in 
many  cases  far  exceeds  the  cost  of  a  first-class 
edifice.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  erection 
of  such  structures  is  inexcusable,  except  in 
those  instances  (not  so  frequent  as  supposed) 
where  the  necessities  of  a  company  render  it  un- 
avoidable. 

The  injury  to  rolling  stock  and  machinery  by 
the  use  of  inferior  lubricants  aptly  illustrates  the 
folly  of  buying  material  of  inferior  quality.  The 
difference  in  first  cost  is  oftentimes  so  marked, 
however,  as  to  secure  the  purchase  of  the  latter 
article.  When  this  is  so  the  charge  upon  the  books 
for  lubricants  appears  as  a  reduction  of  outlay 
and  is  quite  likely  to  excite  the  admiration  of 
directors  and  owners.  The  actual  cost  is  never 
known,  but  comparisons  will  exhibit  increased 
consumption.  The  destruction  engendered  will 
appear  in  the  returns  under  other  headings,  which 
seemingly  have  no  connection  with  it.  The  extra 
outlay  will  be  seen  in  disbursements  for  repairs 
and  renewals  of  equipment,  for  new  axles,  brasses 
and  other  parts  of  machinery,  and  in  all  the 
accounts  incident  to  the  working  of  trains,  such 
as  repairs  of  equipment,  disbursements  for  people 
killed  and  injured,  losses,  damages,  and  services 
of  lawyers  and  doctors.  The  increased  cost  may 
be  traced  step  by  step  through  all  the  labyrinths 
of  the  service,  in  the  stoppage  of  trains,  in  the 
diminished  usefulness  of  the  plant,  and  in  the 
myriad  of  expenses  incident  to  the  detention  of 


500       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

business.  Every  conceivable  expense  follows  in 
the  train  of  hot  journal  boxes,  broken  axles,  torn 
up  tracks,  derailed  trains  and  kindred  mishaps 
that  ever  attend  the  use  of  poor  lubricants. 

In  connection  with  the  cost  of  wheels,  axles, 
frames,  springs,  bolts,  nuts  and  kindred  applian- 
ces, we  find,  as  in  the  case  of  oils,  that  the  relative 
cost  of  a  good  and  a  bad  article  is  not  alone 
manifest  in  the  first  price.  The  cost  of  the  poor 
article  will  further  appear  in  added  disbursements 
for  people  killed  and  injured,  losses  and  damages 
and  all  the  multitudinous  expenditures  that 
attend  accidents  to  trains. 

Other  interests,  foreign  to  the  immediate  pur- 
pose, attend  the  use  of  supplies.  It  frequently 
occurs  that  the  purchase  of  material  is  made  to 
facilitate  the  securing  of  business  or  the  placating 
of  someone.  When  this  is  so,  the  price  represents 
the  value  of  the  article  and  the  benefit  derived 
from  its  purchase.  Many  other  things,  such  as  a 
desire  to  foster  local  interests,  affect  the  source 
from  which  supplies  are  drawn,  inducing  the 
purchaser,  it  may  be,  to  pay  a  rate  above  the  mar- 
ket price.  In  such  cases,  of  course,  the  indirect 
gain  is  expected  to  offset  the  direct  loss.  Prac- 
tices of  this  kind  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Generally,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the  emer- 
gency that  warrants  going  out  of  the  general 
market  to  purchase  presupposes  an  extreme 
case,  and  one,  therefore,  not  to  be  considered  as 
a  factor  in  a  general  review  of  the  procurement 
of  railway  material. 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  501 

The  interests  of  a  railroad  are  identical  with 
those  of  the  country  in  which  it  operates.  It  en- 
deavors, consequently,  in  every  way  to  advance 
the  affairs  of  its  co-laborers — the  local  producer 
and  consumer.  But  this  assistance,  however  val- 
uable and  real,  never  appears  under  specific  head- 
ings on  the  books  of  the  railroad.  When  aid  is 
extended,  as  I  have  shown  in  the  purchase  of  sup- 
plies, the  added  cost  cannot  be  fixed,  under  any 
head,  in  the  accounts.  Separation,  therefore,  is 
not  attempted;  the  total  price  paid  for  the  mate- 
rial is  charged  to  operating  expenses,  although  a 
portion  might,  with  more  propriety,  be  charged 
to  traffic.  Particular  operating  accounts  are 
thus  burdened  with  disbursements  foreign  to 
their  purpose. 

Before  attempting  to  fix  the  cost  of  operating 
a  company's  property,  it  is  apparent  from  the 
foregoing,  we  must  know  the  circumstances  at- 
tending its  purchase  and  use  of  materials,  includ- 
ing prime  cost,  indirect  cost,  distance  supplies  are 
hauled,  cost  of  hauling,  service  of  equipment,  ex- 
pense of  substitution,  storage,  shrinkage,  interest, 
insurance,  etc. 

The  difference  between  affairs  as  they  exist 
and  as  they  are  supposed  to  exist  in  the  purchase 
and  use  of  supplies,  illustrates  very  fairly  the  dif- 
ference between  practice  and  theory  in  railway 
operations.  To  the  amateur  the  railway  prob- 
lem is  like  a  shallow  cistern  that  may  be  dipped 
dry  with  a  drinking  cup,  but  to  the  practical 
worker  and  thinker  it  represents,  in  its  economy, 
the  problems  of  a  mighty  sea. 


502         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Management  of  railroads  requires  that  those 
who  direct  affairs  shall  be  men  trained  in  the 
discharge  of  business,  fitted  to  govern,  whose 
judgment  has  been  trained  by  years  of  observa- 
tion, practical  work  and  restraint.  Men  self- 
controlled  and  self-contained,  forcible,  luminous 
in  their  conception  of  great  problems,  and  yet 
capable  of  employing  simple  and  economical  ex- 
pedients. They  must  possess,  in  fact,  the  busi- 
ness ability  of  the  trader  with  the  executive  force 
of  the  general  and  statesman.  They  must  be  edu- 
cated in  minor  offices.  No  railway  can  afford  to 
educate  an  officer  in  the  position  of  an  officer;  it 
is  at  once  too  expensive  and  too  demoralizing. 


The  cost  of  working  a  property  is  greatly  af- 
fected by  the  quality  of  the  traffic  and  the  length 
of  haul.  This  is,  perhaps,  more  particularly  the 
case  with  freight  than  passenger  business,  for  the 
reason  that  the  former  entails  current  expenses 
unknown  to  the  latter. 

The  expenses  of  railway  companies  now  en- 
tailed for  loading,  unloading  and  storing  freight 
are,  in  many  respects,  foreign  to  the  original  in- 
tent and  purpose  of  common  carriers,  and,  in 
many  instances,  not  necessarily  a  part  of  their 
office. 

In  some  countries,  notably  in  Great  Britain, 
railway  companies  contract  with  teaming  com- 
panies or  employ  carts  of  their  own  to  haul 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  503 

merchandise  to  and  from  stations.  Much  of  the 
freight,  however,  is  loaded  by  the  shipper  directly 
upon  the  cars.*  The  freight  rate  charged  by 
English  companies  does  not  uniformly  include 
either  the  cost  of  loading,  unloading  or  covering 
the  goods.  When  such  services  are  performed  by 
the  railway  it  makes  a  special  charge  therefor. 
It  also  makes  an  additional  charge,  in  many  cases, 
for  cost  of  building  and  working  side  tracks.  In 
America,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  usual  for  the 
railroad  companies  to  load  and  unload  freight, 
and  while  they  do  not  generally  attend  to  the  col- 
lection or  delivery  of  freight  at  terminal  points, 
they  nevertheless  place  it  in  a -secure  warehouse, 
which  they  generally  own  and  control.f 

No  direct  charge  is  made  in  America  for  load- 
ing or  unloading,  no  matter  what  the  length  of 
haul.  Nor  is  anything  exacted  specifically  for 
the  use  of  a  company's  warehouses,  except  in 
those  cases  where  goods  remain  for  an  unreason- 
able length  of  time.  A  charge  for  demurrage  is 
made  in  the  case  of  cars  that  are  not  unloaded 


"The  box  or  inclosed  freight  car  so  universally  in  use  in 
America  is  little  known  upon  English  lines,  the  flat  or  open  car 
being  used  by  them,  merchandise  loaded  upon  it  being  covered, 
when  necessary,  with  a  tarpaulin.  This  vehicle  is  much  lighter 
than  the  box  car;  indeed,  it  is  much  shorter  and  lighter  than 
our  flat  or  open  car. 

f  The  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  express  com- 
panies, who  conduct  what  in  England  is  denominated  "  the  par- 
cels traffic;"  these  companies  not  only  collect  much  of  the 
freight  transported  by  them,  but  deliver  it  (in  large  towns)  to 
the  consignee,  the  charge  for  this  service  (within  certain  lim- 
its) being  embraced  in  the  general  rate. 


504      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

within  a  specified  time,  if  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
consignee  to  unload  the  freight. 

No  charge  is  made  by  American  companies  for 
the  use  of  side  tracks. 

In  England  a  special  charge  is  made  when 
traffic  is  hauled  but  a  short  distance.  Thus,  the 
rate  for  six  miles,  or  any  fraction  thereof,  may 
be  the  same  as  for  twelve  miles.  This  is  in  addi- 
tion to  the  supplementary  charge  for  loading, 
unloading,  etc.  Our  custom  with  respect  to  this 
class  of  business  is  doubtless  in  practice  not 
materially  different,  but  the  basis  for  the  charge 
is  not  so  well  understood.  The  omission  operates 
in  favor  of  the  shipper.* 

The  practices  in  this  country  in  connection 
with  loading,  unloading  and  care  of  freight  have 
assumed  the  habit  of  a  fixed  custom,  though  the 
duty  does  not  properly  fall  within  the  province 
of  a  carrier.  This  is  demonstrated,  if  demonstra- 
tion were  necessary,  by  the  discrimination  which 
companies  make  against  particular  classes  of 
freight,  a  discrimination  the  public  acquiesces  in. 
It  is,  perhaps,  true  that  the  labor  can  be  per- 
formed by  the  railway  to  better  advantage  and 
at  less  expense  than  by  its  patron,  but  this  does 

*  In  reference  to  the  manner  of  settlement  between  the 
different  lines  for  through  traffic,  or  that  which  passes  over 
several  lines  of  railway,  it  is  said  to  be  the  custom  in  England 
to  deduct  from  the  gross  amount  charged  for  performing  the 
service  a  specified  sum  for  terminal  expenses,  varying  in 
amount  as  between  London  and  provincial  towns;  this  sum  is 
apportioned  between  the  companies  receiving  and  delivering 
the  traffic,  after  which  the  balance  is  divided  upon  the  basis 
agreed  upon,  whatever  it  may  be. 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  505 

not  alter  the  fact.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed 
that  the  community  would  provide  cars  required 
to  do  business,  and  would  attend  personally  to 
the  loading  and  unloading  of  freight,  while  the 
railway  company  would  provide  the  track,  and 
in  some  cases  the  motive  power. 

It  is  the  office  of  a  carrier  to  transport  the 
freight  that  is  offered,  not  necessarily  to  load 
and  unload  it;  that  is  the  business  of  the  owner. 
However,  it  is  my  purpose  in  this  connection  to 
notice  the  custom,  not  to  suggest  its  change  or 
modification. 

Practices  are  not  uniform  as  to  the  articles 
which  owners  must  load  or  unload,  but  vary 
according  to  real  or  supposed  necessities  of  busi- 
ness. Usually,  however,  our  carriers  discrimi- 
nate only  against  coarse  articles  of  freight,  such 
as  are  bulky  and  not  easily  damaged,  such  as 
coal,  grain,  lumber,  ores,  pig  iron  and  similar 
articles. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  apparent  that  a  com- 
pany's outlay  for  station  labor,  warehouse  and 
yard  room  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  charac- 
ter of  its  business.  If  made  up  of  freight  which 
the  carrier  undertakes  to  handle,  the  terminal 
charges  will  be  much  greater  than  in  other 
cases. 

These  charges  are  incidental  in  character  and 
contemplate  an  outlay  for  grounds,  tracks,  ware- 
houses, platforms,  yards,  elevators,  depots  and 
other  machinery  necessary  to  the  economical  and 
expeditious  discharge  of  business.  They  vary  so 


506       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

greatly  that  before  attempting  to  compute  the 
expense  of  conducting  a  traffic  their  cost  must  be 
carefully  ascertained. 

Terminal  facilities,  moreover,  that  cost  but 
little  at  one  point  may  involve  enormous  outlay 
at  another.  Thus,  depot  grounds  and  yard  room 
that  can  be  provided  for  a  few  dollars  in  an 
interior  town,  cost  millions  of  dollars  in  a 
great  city.  The  interest  upon  the  capital 
invested  in  these  facilities,  whatever  it  may  be, 
becomes  a  fixed  charge  upon  the  property  and 
must  not  be  overlooked  in  determining  the  cost 
of  doing  business. 

In  reference  to  cost  of  handling  different  kinds 
of  traffic,  the  greatest  difference  exists,  but  the 
extent  of  this  difference  is  little  appreciated. 
Thus,  the  expense  for  station  labor  in  connection 
with  the  movement  of  fifty  thousand  cars  of  coal, 
earning  perhaps  a  million  of  dollars,  will  hardly 
be  more  than  that  for  handling  a  few  crocks  of 
butter  or  the  worn-out  effects  of  an  itinerant 
preacher.  Differences  of  this  character  con- 
tinually occur  in  the  operations  of  railroads  and 
will  ever  confound  those  who  seek  to  make  a  law 
or  institute  a  practice  that  place  them  upon  a 
common  level.  As  soon  might  we  prescribe  a 
given  quantity  of  food,  drink,  air  or  clothes  for 
men,  without  reference  to  their  appetite,  health, 
labor  or  size.  Terminal  expenses,  permanent  and 
otherwise,  are  not  governed  by  the  revenue 
derived  from  a  business,  but  are  the  same  in  all 
cases,  whether  the  traffic  is  desirable  or  otherwise. 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  507 

Nor  are  terminal  expenses  affected  by  the  length 
of  the  haul.  Thus,  it  costs  as  much  to  handle  a 
consignment  of  merchandise  destined  to  a  neigh- 
boring town  as  to  a  point  a  thousand  miles  away; 
the  number  of  laborers  is  the  same,  the  clerical 
force  the  same,  the  facilities  the  same,  the  risk  of 
accident  and  theft  the  same. 

The  through  traffic  of  railroads  may  be  said  to 
represent  the  long  haul  in  contradistinction  to 
local  business,  which  represents  the  short  haul, 
and  while  the  terminal  expenses  are  the  same  in 
either  case,  local  traffic  necessitates  frequent  stop- 
page of  trains,  with  all  the  expenses  incident 
thereto.  They  form  a  sensible  burden,  never  to 
be  lightly  considered  or  overlooked  in  estimating 
the  difficulties  and  expenses  of  operating. 

Within  certain  bounds  the  profitableness  of  a 
business  is  dependent  upon  the  length  of  haul. 
It  is  an  aphorism  in  railway  management  that 
the  equipment  of  a  company  earns  money  only 
when  in  motion.  Anything,  therefore,  which 
retards  that  motion,  acts  to  the  disadvantage  of 
a  carrier. 

To  continue:  the  station  facilities  necessary  to 
accommodate  the  suburban  travel  of  a  metro- 
politan road  must  be  quite  as  elaborate  as  for  a 
more  profitable  business — for  long  haul  traffic, 
for  instance.  The  expense  that  attends  it  is 
much  greater  than  for  ordinary  traffic,  because 
it  is  fixed  in  cities  or  their  immediate  neighbor- 
hood, where  values  have  reached  the  highest 
point.  This  business,  instead  of  paying  a  higher 


508       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

rate  than  traffic  requiring  less  costly  accommo- 
dations, is  awarded  a  less  rate.  This  difference 
is  oftentimes  more  than  is  justified  by  the  quan- 
tity handled.  A  low  rate  is  given  from  a  desire 
to  stimulate  traffic.  It  represents  also  the  differ- 
ence between  wholesale  and  retail  business. 
Suburban  residents  represent  an  average  haul 
each  day  equal  to  so  many  trains  (a  fixed  quan- 
tity), while  isolated  passengers,  gathered  at  widely 
separated  points,  represent  the  retail  element  of 
trade. 

While  it  is  true  that  terminal  expenses  inci- 
dent to  traffic  must  be  considered  in  fixing  the 
rate,  it  is  also  true  that  no  recognized  or  uniform 
practice  can  be  observed.  The  judgment  of  the 
compiler  of  the  tariff,  based  on  the  peculiarities 
of  the  business,  must  determine  the  rate  for  the 
time  being.  A  more  formal  basis  is  not  practicable. 

Few  companies  could  provide  the  terminal 
facilities  they  do  if  their  trade  were  wholly  local. 
The  profits  they  derive  from  through  business 
enable  them,  for  the  moment,  to  carry  the  bur- 
den of  the  less  profitable  traffic. 

It  is  a  generally  accepted  belief  that  the  local 
business  of  a  road  is  the  more  remunerative,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  not  subjected  to  the  disturbing 
influences  which  surround  through  traffic.  This 
was  the  case  at  one  time,  but  long  ago  ceased  to 
be  so.  Multiplicity  of  roads  paralleling  and  in- 
tersecting each  other  oftentimes  compels  them 
to  compete  for  local  business  quite  as  much  as 
for  through  traffic. 


MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION.  509 

The  cost  of  soliciting  business  is  to  some  ex- 
tent a  terminal  expense.  It  varies  greatly  upon 
different  lines.  The  expense  of  one  line  for  ad- 
vertising and  soliciting  agents,  for  illustration, 
will  be  treble  that  of  another.  This  difference 
may  be  occasioned  by  the  disadvantages  of  the 
company's  line  or  the  special  character  of  the 
business. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  brief  and 
imperfect  consideration  of  the  subject  that  spe- 
cial items  of  cost  connected  with  the  handling  of 
traffic  cannot  be  overlooked  in  studying  the  dis- 
bursements of  railways.  This  fact  should  be  re- 
membered by  legislators  and  others  in  attempting 
to  enforce  uniform  rates  and  conditions.  Each 
company  must  be  considered  apart  and  the  con- 
ditions attending  its  traffic  duly  and  exhaustively 
studied. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

MAINTENANCE — FIXED   OPERATING   EXPENSES. 

Expenditures  do  not  grow  relatively  with  a 
traffic.  The  outlay  upon  a  heavily  worked  line 
is  not  proportionately  as  great  as  upon  a  line  less 
busy.  One  of  the  reasons  is  that  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  disbursements  of  a  company  comes 
under  what  are  called  fixed  expenses.  Many 
expenses  of  this  character  are  not  affected  at  all, 
or  only  remotely,  by  an  increase  or  decrease  in 
business.  However,  these  expenses  are  never  the 
same  relatively  upon  different  roads.* 

The  fixed  expenses  of  a  railroad  may  be  termed 
the  minimum  cost  of  operating.  After  they  are 
provided  for,  every  dollar  of  income  a  property 
can  be  made  to  earn  without  increasing  such 
expenses,  represents,  obviously,  a  decided  gain. 
This  is  well  understood  and  represents  a  principle 

*The  term  fixed  expenses  or  charges  is  used  in  a  double 
sense  in  railway  nomenclature;  first,  it  applies  generally  to  the 
operating  expenses,  interest  and  rentals  of  railroad  companies, 
and,  second,  to  those  expenses  connected  with  the  immediate 
working  of  the  property  that  are  not  affected  at  all,  or  only 
lightly,  by  the  amount  of  its  traffic,  such  as  superintendence, 
salaries  of  station  agents,  flagmen  at  crossings,  bridge  tenders, 
etc.  The  last  named  should  be  called  "fixed  operating  expenses" 
or  "fixed  expenses,"  while  the  former  should  be  called  " fixed 
charges." 

(510) 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  511 

that  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  practice  of 
granting  a  relatively  low  rate  when  the  traffic  is 
unusual  in  quantity  or  can  be  handled  without 
adding  relatively  to  cost. 

A  brief  summary  of  fixed  expenditures  may  be 
properly  given  here;  and,  first,  I  may  mention 
those  relating  to  organization.  This  must  be 
maintained  with  little,  if  any,  reference  to  the 
amount  or  profitableness  of  the  business  done. 
All  of  a  company's  affairs  are  dependent  upon  the 
preservation,  unimpaired,  of  its  legal  status. 
This  obligation  is  imperative,  and  while  the  dis- 
bursements on  this  account  may  be  small  com- 
pared with  many  others,  they  are,  nevertheless, 
considerable. 

Many  expenses  intervene,  without  much,  if  any, 
reference  to  the  amount  of  traffic.  Thus  the  mail 
must  be  carried  and  delivered  punctually,  no 
matter  how  small  it  may  be;  the  convenience  of 
the  public  must  also  be  provided  for  at  stations 
and  elsewhere,  and  the  number  of  specified  trains 
(which  the  custom  of  the  country  or  the  charter 
of  the  company  compels  it  to  operate)  must  be 
run  each  day.  In  matters  such  as  these  the 
discretion  of  the  management  is  very  limited 
indeed. 

The  outlay  incident  to  the  movement  of  trains 
is  the  same  for  wages  of  men  engaged,  whether 
the  cars  are  loaded  to  repletion  or  travel  com- 
paratively empty.  This  is  also  true,  relatively, 
of  other  train  expenses,  such  as  fuel,  oil,  lights, 
attendance,  wear  and  tear,  etc.  Someone,  also, 


512       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

must  be  on  hand  at  stations  to  open  the  com- 
pany's waiting  rooms,  see  that  they  are  kept 
clean  and  comfortable,  preserve  order  in  and 
about  the  buildings,  keep  the  platforms  and  track 
unobstructed,  ticket  such  passengers  as  present 
themselves,  receive  and  discharge  goods,  and  an- 
swer questions  asked  by  patrons. 

The  wages  paid  the  incumbents  of  these  offices 
must  moreover  be  such  as  to  secure  faithful  men, 
competent  to  perform  the  maximum  amount  of 
service  required.  And  so  it  is  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  force  as  a  whole— with  general  and 
local  officers,  superior  and  petty  heads,  including 
foremen  and  others.  Each  must,  in  his  place,  be 
competent  to  perform,  at  a  moment's  notice,  the 
greatest  amount  of  service  that  the  necessities  of 
the  company  require.  An  exigency  arises  and 
passes  in  railway  life  like  the  flight  of  an  express 
train.  There  is  no  time  for  consultation,  no  time 
to  study  text-books,  no  time  to  examine  rules 
and  regulations,  or  to  write  to  superior  officers 
for  instructions;  the  company  at  such  times  must 
have  someone  on  the  spot  competent  to  act. 
Such  necessities  must  be  provided  for  without 
reference  to  the  general  run  of  business,  and  in 
so  far  as  this  is  so,  they  constitute  a  fixed  expense. 

An  agency  that  may,  at  any  moment,  be  called 
upon  to  handle  a  hundred  carloads  of  freight 
cannot  be  intrusted  to  the  care  of  a  person  who 
could  perhaps  manipulate  half  that  number  with 
facility,  but  would  break  down  under  greater  re- 
sponsibility. The  agent  must,  in  his  turn,  select 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  513 

subordinate  servants  with  a  view  to  like  contin- 
gencies. What  is  true  in  this  respect  of  the  agent 
and  his  assistants  applies  with  equal  force  to  con- 
ductors of  trains,  foremen  of  shops,  track  bosses 
and  superintendents  of  bridges.  It  applies,  with 
redoubled  force,  to  managers.  The  exigencies  of 
railway  service  require  men  of  special  training, 
of  peculiar  qualifications,  of  minute  practical 
knowledge.  There  are  no  exceptions  to  this  rule 
in  any  department  or  branch  of  the  service.  Su- 
pervisory officials,  especially  those  in  immediate 
charge  of  the  property,  must  be  as  well  skilled  as 
the  directing  manager.  They  must  possess  gen- 
eral knowledge,  as  well  as  particular  acquaintance 
with  the  immediate  position  they  hold.  This  in- 
volves intimate  acquaintance  with  the  property 
as  a  whole — its  defects,  resources  and  peculiari- 
ties. This  presupposes  long  association,  years 
of  observation  and  thought.  Attainment  is  im- 
possible otherwise.  Without  prolonged  associa- 
tion the  knowledge  officials  bring  to  the  discharge 
of  their  duties  is  incomplete,  oftentimes  imprac- 
ticable. 

The  personnel  of  a  railroad  organization  may 
not,  therefore,  be  changed  hastily  or  unadvisedly 
without  detriment,  for  the  property  is  the  crea- 
ture of  the  .  operative  and  its  value  dependent 
upon  his  capacity  and  fidelity.  He  must  ever  be 
considered  in  forming  an  estimate  of  its  present 
or  prospective  value. 

In  every  department  of  railway  service  we  dis- 
cover carefully  selected  men  of  capacity  and 

33    Vol.  13 


514        BUILDING  AND  RE 'PAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

resources,  the  superiors  of  their  fellows,  singled 
out  with  reference  to  present  and  prospective 
emergencies.  From  the  character  of  these  men 
we  may  judge  intelligently  of  the  discernment  and 
trustworthiness  of  the  managers. 

The  importance  of  the  duties  (present  and  pros- 
pective) performed  by  various  classes  of  officials 
is  apparent  in  the  compensation  allotted  them. 
The  official  in  charge  of  a  pass  high  up  on  a 
mountain  side,  or  having  the  care  of  a  difficult 
morass  or  hazardous  piece  of  track,  no  matter 
where  it  may  be  located,  is  paid  a  higher  rate  of 
wages  than  his  neighbor,  whose  skill  and  respon- 
sibility are  less.  Selections  in  every  case  are 
based  on  fitness.  A  track  foreman  who  might 
be  trusted  in  the  absence  of  danger  could  not  be 
depended  upon  to  act  with  intelligence  and  pre- 
cision in  case  of  a  wreck  or  the  washing  away  of 
a  roadbed.  A  bridge  superintendent  who  un- 
derstands how  to  keep  in  repair  the  property 
intrusted  to  his  charge  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, might  be  exceedingly  awkward  if  called 
upon  at  a  moment's  notice  to  construct  an 
entire  structure.  In  the  same  way  a  conductor 
who  might  know  how  and  when  to  start  or 
stop  a  train,  how  tickets  should  be  collected  or 
cars  received  into  or  detached  from  a  train,  would 
not,  perhaps,  know  what  to  do  in  case  his  train 
was  thrown  from  the  track  or  lost  its  rights. 
All  these  things  are  thought  of  and  anticipated. 

In  the  selection  of  men  to  fill  petty  offices  of 
responsibility,  as  well  as  those  of  greater  degree, 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  515 

every  varying  circumstance  must  be  carefully 
considered  by  the  appointing  power.  Selection 
or  continuance  in  the  service  require,  frequently, 
extra  wages.  Thus  extra  wages  are  paid  some- 
times to  meet  exigencies  that  never  arise.  These 
we  may  term  constructive  expenditures.  They 
are  much  the  same  upon  all  lines,  without  refer- 
ence to  the  business  done. 

The  cost  of  caring  for  a  property  is  not  affected 
by  what  it  earns  to  so  great  an  extent  as  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  A  competent  and  trustworthy 
manager  must  in  any  event  be  employed  to  look 
after  its  affairs.  The  amount  paid  him  is  dictated 
by  the  extent  of  the  property  and  the  ability  and 
faithfulness  of  the  man.  This  is  true  to  a  certain 
extent  of  all  the  officers  of  a  company.  The 
salaries  of  minor  officials  are  more  dependent 
upon  the  business  done.  This  is  also  true  of  sub- 
ordinate servants,  but  a  large  proportion  con- 
stitutes a  fixed  expense,  not  dependent,  except 
remotely,  upon  the  amount  or  profitableness  of 
the  business. 

At  the  headquarters  cf  every  company  an  ex- 
pensive force  must  be  maintained.  It  is  made 
up  of  assistants,  and  is  the  subsidiary  brain  of 
the  enterprise,  without  which  the  organization 
would  fall  to*  pieces  of  its  own  weight.  It  con- 
sists of  skilled  men.  They  carry  on  the  general 
business  of  the  company  as  between  the  corpora- 
tion and  the  public;  also  as  between  the  former 
and  employes  on  the  line  of  the  road.  They  are, 
as  a  rule,  discreet  and  able  men,  well  disciplined 


516       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

in  their  offices,  and  commanding  the  respect  of  the 
public  and  the  obedience  of  the  employes  of  the 
company  on  the  line.  The  number  and  salaries 
of  these  assistants  are  not  materially  influenced 
by  the  fluctuations  of  trade,  except  when  it  ex- 
tends over  a  considerable  period  of  time.  They 
may  be  said  to  be  fixed  in  the  offices  they  occupy. 
Increase  or  decrease  of  traffic  does  not  affect 
them.  The  explanation  of  this  is  found  in  the 
difficulty  of  filling  their  places.  The  knowledge 
they  possess  is  the  result  of  laborious  training 
and  years  of  familiarity  with  their  particular 
duties.  Except  when  business  is  depressed  for  a 
very  considerable  period,  it  is  inexpedient  as  well 
as  expensive  for  a  company  to  make  any  change 
or  reduction  in  its  general  office  force.  A  reduc- 
tion of  wages  is  practicable,  but  not  a  reduction 
in  number. 

The  traffic  of  a  company  may  be  paralyzed  by 
a  great  storm,  or  its  business  disturbed  by  the 
failure  of  a  crop  or  through  the  diversion  of 
trade,  without  lessening  its  fixed  expenses. 

Up  to  a  certain  point,  addition  to  traffic  is  not 
followed  by  corresponding  increase  in  either  the 
number  or  wages  of  employes.  There  is  no  in- 
crease in  the  number  or  pay  of  watchmen  at 
crossings  and  bridges,  track  patrol,  or  persons  in 
charge  of  tunnels  or  bridges.  No  increase  in  the 
number  of  agents  at  stations,  of  the  principal 
ticket  sellers,  of  the  men  employed  in  connection 
with  the  customary  trains,  of  foremen  and  their 
assistants,  busied  in  keeping  the  track  in  order, 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  517, 

or  of  the  force  at  shops  and  roundhouses  and 
depots  of  supply. 

When,  however,  traffic  increases  beyond  a 
certain  point,  expenditures  for  wages  will  in- 
crease beyond  what  the  profitableness  of  the 
added  traffic  warrants.  This  increase  will  con- 
tinue until  the  traffic  again  roaches  a  point 
where  the  maximum  amount  of  labor  is  ex- 
acted. 

Within  certain  limits,  the  elasticity  of  every 
organization  enables  it  to  accommodate  an  in- 
crease of  business  without  addition  to  its  number, 
just  as  a  considerable  increase  is  possible  in  the 
number  of  guests  at  a  hotel  without  any  addition 
to  the  number  of  attendants.  Let  us  suppose  the 
maximum  of  this  increase  to  be  fifty  guests.  This 
number  may  be  added  without  increased  cost  for 
service  to  the  proprietor,  but  at  this  point  the 
addition  of  a  guest  will  necessitate  the  employ- 
ment of  an  additional  clerk,  another  waiter,  an 
assistant  porter,  and  so  on  through  the  list  of 
attendants.  This  outlay  is,  of  course,  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  added  income  and  has,  there- 
fore, the  effect  of  increasing  the  relative  cost  of 
operating  the  house.  It  is,  however,  unavoidable, 
and  so  it  is  in  the  working  of  railroads.  We  will 
suppose  a  passenger  train  is  added  to  the  list  of 
those  already  operated  by  a  company.  Only  a 
small  percentage  of  the  patrons  of  this  new  train 
is  made  up  of  new  passengers.  The  traffic  of  the 
line  simply  readjusts  itself  to  the  increased  facil- 
ities. The  convenience  which  the  new  train  offers 


518        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

the  public  will  add  a  few  passengers,  but  there  is 
no  marked  addition  to  the  business,  and  until 
there  is  an  increase  commensurate  with  the  added 
facilities  the  company  is  a  loser,  for  the  reason 
that  under  fche  new  order  of  things  its  train  serv- 
ice is  performing  only  the  minimum  labor  of 
which  it  is  capable,  while  before  it  performed 
the  maximum  amount.  The  same  rule  applies  to 
freight  trains  and  is  noticeable  in  all  departments 
of  the  service.  At  a  certain  time  in  the  growth 
of  a  traffic,  it  thus  appears,  the  outlay  is  much 
greater  than  the  income.  Subsequent  growth  of 
business  may  warrant  the  increase,  or  it  may  not. 
In  determining  such  questions  (and  they  are  of 
continual  occurrence  in  the  operations  of  a  rail- 
road) the  judgment  of  the  officer  upon  whom  the 
responsibility  rests  is  sometimes  colored  and  con- 
fused, so  that  intelligent  action  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected in  every  case.  So  far  as  the  writer's 
observation  extends,  the  only  means  of  testing 
the  possibilities  of  a  company's  traffic  is  to  add 
new  trains. 

There  is  this  to  be  remembered  in  connection 
with  additions  made  to  the  number  of  employes 
of  a  well  appointed  railway  company  (in  contra- 
distinction to  a  new  enterprise),  its  well  disciplined 
organization  enables  it  to  utilize  the  cheapest 
quality  of  labor  of  the  kind  it  needs.  This  is 
impossible  in  the  other  case.  The  first  only 
requires  an  increase  of  mechanical  force,  not  of 
constructive  ability.  The  effect  of  such  addition 
U\  of  course,  to  reduce  the  average  cost  of  doing 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  519 

business;  a  consummation  every  manager  labors 
unceasingly  to  bring  about. 

The  effect  I  have  pointed  out  of  determinate 
expenses  or  cost  as  it  is  influenced  by  labor  of  a 
certain  character  is  quite  as  marked  in  other 
departments  of  the  service.  Thus,  disbursements 
for  interest  on  bonds  are  not  affected  even  re- 
motely by  fluctuations  of  business.  This  is 
equally  true  in  many  instances  of  taxes,  assess- 
ments being  based  on  the  supposed  value  of  the 
property  rather  than  upon  its  revenue  producing 
qualities. 

Many  of  the  guaranties  also  which  business 
compels  a  company  to  enter  into  are  not  affected 
one  way  or  another  by  earnings. 

The  amount  paid  for  rent  of  buildings  and 
grounds  is  only  nominally  affected  by  the  increase 
or  decrease  of  earnings.  Any  permanent  decline 
of  business  in  the  end  necessitates  a  readjustment 
of  contracts  and  leases,  but  as  agreements  con- 
nected with  buildings  and  grounds  are  usually 
entered  into  for  a  series  of  years,  the  expenses 
they  entail  cannot  be  hastily  diminished. 

Also  the  cost  to  a  company  of  keeping  its  fences, 
gates  and  crossings  in  order  is  not  increased  or 
diminished,  perceptibly,  by  the  business  it  does. 
The  amount  disbursed  for  these  purposes  is  de- 
pendent upon  other  causes,  over  which  a  com- 
pany has  very  little  control. 

The  expense  of  maintaining  the  permanent 
structures  of  a  company  depends  quite  as  much 
upon  natural  influences  as  upon  the  business 


520       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

done.  Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances 
bridges  and  culverts  will  crumble,  buildings  will 
fall  to  the  ground,  fences,  gates  and  crossings 
will  succumb  to  climatic  and  other  influences, 
embankments  and  cuts  will  be  rendered  unsafe, 
ditches  will  fill  up,  the  roadbed  will  require  bal- 
last and  careful  attention,  and  ties  will  decay 
and  the  rails  become  unfit  for  use.  All  these 
things  will  occur,  whether  business  be  light  or 
heavy,  if  a  constant  stream  of  money  is  not 
poured  out  day  by  day. 

The  expenses  of  a  company  also  depend  largely 
upon  the  nature  of  renewals.  These,  it  is  ap- 
parent, will  be  influenced  by  the  length  of  time 
the  property  has  been  in  operation  and  the 
thoroughness  with  which  it  was  originally  con- 
structed. 

At  first,  cost  of  maintenance  will  be  very  light 
upon  a  well  constructed  road,  but  with  the  lapse 
of  time  it  will  steadily  increase,  the  maximum 
being  reached  at  the  point  at  which  the  average 
durability  of  such  property  is  reached.  This 
period  will  vary  in  different  sections  and  under 
different  circumstances,  according  to  climate, 
nature  of  material  used  and  amount  of  busi- 
ness done.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the 
average  should  not  be  reached  under  ten  years, 
or  whatever  time  may  represent  the  average 
durability  of  rails,  ties,  spikes,  equipment,  plat- 
forms, fences,  buildings,  bridges,  culverts  and 
similar  property. 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  521 

Generally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  amount  of 
business  determines  the  duration  of  equipment, 
while  weight  and  speed  measurably  determine 
the  duration  of  rails. 

Turning  to  another  feature  of  the  case  (the 
machinery  of  railroads),  the  difference  between 
the  wear  and  tear  of  that  used  and  unused  is  not 
nearly  so  great  as  it  would  seem  at  first  glance. 
The  cost  of  preserving  unemployed  machinery  in 
good  order  is  not  noticeably  less,  as  every  manu- 
facturer is  aware,  than  the  cost  of  keeping  it  in 
order  when  employed. 

The  subtle  influences  of  idleness  are  as  destruc- 
tive to  man's  work  in  this  case  as  idleness  is  to 
man  himself.  The  machinery  he  constructs  with 
such  infinite  care  and  labor  requires  constant 
attention,  otherwise  it  quickly  becomes  worthless. 

The  amount  of  fuel  necessary  to  haul  the  mini- 
mum load  of  a  train  is  a  fixed  charge.  The  fuel 
consumed  by  a  locomotive  hauling  thirty  cars  is 
not  relatively  as  great  as  when  hauling  one-third 
that  number,  yet  the  appurtenances  necessary  to 
the  successful  operation  of  the  train  are  prac- 
tically the  same;  the  lubricants  used  upon  the 
locomotive  are  substantially  the  same;  the  lights 
and  furniture  are  the  same;  the  conflagrations 
which  the  locomotive  causes  are  the  same;  the 
accidents  are  the  same;  the  number  of  incautious 
people  killed  or  injured  is  the  same;  the  num- 
ber of  cattle  run  over  and  crushed  is  the  same; 
the  number  of  switches  to  be  turned  at  meeting 
points  is  the  same;  the  wages  of  the  train  force 


522       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

are  the  same;  the  telegraphic  orders  that  pass 
back  and  forth  between  different  train  officials 
are  the  same;  all  the  varied  expenses  con- 
nected with  the  use  of  water  are  practically  the 
same. 

As  I  have  stated,  the  cost  of  keeping  up  the 
organization  of  a  company  is  not  noticeably  dif- 
ferent, whether  the  business  is  large  or  small, 
productive  or  otherwise.  The  expenses  which 
the  laws  require  must  be  met  without  reference 
to  receipts;  bulletins  must  be  posted  as  the  law 
prescribes;  tariffs  must  be  promulgated,  agree- 
ments made,  notices  of  elections  posted,  trustees 
remunerated,  traveling  expenses  met,  complicated 
and  expensive  returns  rendered,  lawyers  em- 
ployed, and  insurance  duly  looked  after. 

These  expenses  are  in  the  main  inherent  and 
in  no  wise  dependent  upon  the  productiveness  of 
business.  When,  therefore,  we  see  a  partially 
loaded  train  winding  its  way  across  the  country, 
or  remark  a  yard  filled  with  idle  equipment,  we 
must  not  conclude  that  the  owner  has  reduced 
his  expenses  to  conform  to  the  business  he  is 
transacting,  or  that  it  is  possible  for  him  to  do 
so.  On  the  contrary,  we  may  truthfully  believe 
that  many  of  his  expenses  have  not  been  lessened 
at  all.  And  we  may  remember  another  fact, 
namely,  that  the  owners  are  never  disregardful 
of  the  circumstance  that  profits  arise  out  of  the 
business  that  is  carried  on  after  the  fixed  ex- 
penses have  been  met,  and  hence  in  fostering 
business  they  need  no  spur.  To  them,  therefore, 


FIXED  OPERATING  EXPENSES.  523 

may  safely  be  left  the  development  of  the  busi- 
ness of  their  lines.  Out  of  it  grows  their  profit; 
without  it  their  roads  are  worthless.  No  one  is 
so  much  interested  as  they,  no  one  so  wise  in  the 
solution  of  vexed  questions. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

MAINTENANCE — COST    OF   OPERATING    AFFECTED 
FACILITIES. 

The  cost  of  operating  a  road  is  affected  favor- 
ably or  otherwise  according  as  its  facilities  are 
ample  or  not. 

To  enable  a  company  to  secure  the  most  favor- 
able results  possible  it  must  be  able  to  carry 
forward  its  repairs  and  renewals  at  the  most 
opportune  season  of  the  year  and  have  appliances 
fitted  to  their  economical  and  rapid  performance. 
It  must  be  in  good  condition  financially  and  pos- 
sess machinery  fitted  to  its  wants  and  adequate 
to  carry  on  its  work. 

Many  of  the  differences  noticeable  in  the  cost 
of  working  railway  properties  are  attributable  to 
differences  in  facilities. 

A  company  that  is  not  provided  with  adequate 
equipment  for  doing  its  business  suffers  many 
expenses  that  would  under  other  circumstances 
be  avoided.  In  addition  to  this  loss,  the  traffic 
that  it  cannot  for  the  moment  accommodate  will, 
when  it  can,  seek  other  channels,  and  thus  its 
revenue  will  be  lost.  Moveover,  current  expenses 
will  be  increased  in  many  cases,  while  loss  of 
business  will  swell  the  percentage  of  operating 
expenses  to  revenue. 

(524) 


FACILITIES  AFFECT  COST  OF  OPERATING.     525 

A  superabundant  equipment,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  unprofitable  to  its  owner.  Its  possession  in- 
volves loss  of  interest  on  cost  and  the  expense  of 
keeping  it  in  order.  In  addition  to  this,  the  effort 
to  find  employment  for  it  is  quite  likely  to  lead 
its  owners  into  excesses,  of  one  kind  or  another, 
but  mainly  in  the  direction  of  unnecessary  rate 
cutting  and  other  foolish  competitive  efforts. 

The  disposition  of  railway  companies  to  en- 
croach upon  each  other,  coupled  with  a  belief 
inherent  in  the  breasts  of  many  of  those  who 
serve  them  that  they  can  create  business,  has 
been  the  cause  of  many  of  the  disasters  that  have 
wrecked  railway  properties. 

What  I  have  said  in  reference  to  the  necessity 
of  restricting  the  machinery  and  rolling  stock  of 
a  company  within  necessary  bounds,  applies 
equally  to  its  property  as  a  whole.  While  a  prop- 
erty must  be  maintained  at  a  point  commensurate 
with  the  needs  of  business,  it  must  stop  there. 
Contingent  wants  that  may  never  occur  should 
not  be  anticipated,  but  left  to  be  met  when  the 
exigency  arises. 

While  owners  thus  restrict  themselves  they 
will  remember  that  prosperity  cannot  be  attained 
or  maintained  without  adequate  facilities.  When 
needs  are  inadequately  provided,  revenue  that 
should  accrue  for  extending  and  strengthening 
the  property  is  lost.  A  company  thus  unhappily 
situated  cannot  compete  successfully  with  an 
alert  rival.  It  is  avoided  by  many  who  would, 
under  other  circumstances,  give  it  support,  while 


626      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

its  expenses  are  swollen  unnecessarily  by  its 
improvidence. 

Railway  managers,  it  may  be  said,  understand 
the  importance  of  keeping  a  property  in  good 
condition.  The  difficulty  is,  and  always  will  be, 
to  make  the  owners  equally  alive  to  the  fact. 
Absorbed  in  the  prospect  of  a  dividend,  secure  in 
the  belief  that  the  management  will  provide  the 
necessary  ways  and  means  for  meeting  renewals 
and  improvements,  they  lack  apprehension  and 
interest.  They  do  not  refuse  to  make  provision 
for  the  company's  wants,  they  simply  ignore  the 
matter.  To  meet  together  from  time  to  time  and 
authorize  an  expected  dividend,  is  too  often  the 
consummation  of  earthly  responsibility  on  their 
part.  They  listen  with  approval  to  the  remarks 
of  the  chairman,  congratulate  the  manager  upon 
his  energy  and  efficiency,  and  disperse,  leaving 
him  to  get  along  as  best  he  can.  Thus,  his  wishes 
are  disregarded  and  the  strength  of  the  property 
wasted.  The  truthfulness  of  this  is  apparent  in 
many  ways  and  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the 
losses  resulting  are  always  disproportionate  to 
the  saving  effected. 

Innumerable  instances  might  be  cited,  if  neces- 
sary, to  illustrate  the  necessity  of  a  company 
supplying  itself  with  needed  appliances.  Thus,  a 
company  that  does  not  possess  adequate  tracks, 
convenient  sidings  or  sufficient  yard  room  can- 
not handle  its  traffic  with  the  celerity  and 
economy  it  could  if  it  possessed  such  facilities. 
Again,  the  company  that  is  able  to  make  its  track 


FACILITIES  AFFECT  COST  OF  OPERATING.     527 

repairs  and  renewals  at  the  period  of  the  year 
most  advantageous  for  such  work  will  be  able, 
manifestly,  to  do  so  more  economically  than  its 
less  fortunate  neighbor.  It  is  essential,  above  all 
things,  to  the  prosperity  of  a  company,  that  it 
should  be  able  to  make  its  repairs  and  renewals 
as  occasions  for  them  arise.  An  unsafe  bridge, 
an  insecure  culvert,  or  a  defective  axle  or  wheel 
may  involve  the  destruction  of  a  train  which, 
with  collateral  losses,  will  amount  to  thousands 
of  dollars.  And  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
losses  that  result  to  a  company  from  accidents  of 
this  kind  can  never  be  known,  for  the  reason  that 
they  entail  loss  of  public  confidence  in  the 
methods  of  a  company.  Thus,  to  the  known  loss 
there  must  be  added  indirect  loss  occasioned  by 
diversion  of  traffic. 

It  is  in  details  of  operation  that  losses  accruing 
from  improvident  management  are  most  marked. 
Thus,  a  battered  rail  in  the  track  of  a.  busy  line 
will  so  rack  the  equipment  passing  over  it  that 
the  cost  of  repairs  will  many  times  outweigh  the 
value  of  a  new  rail.  The  same  is  true  of  a  line 
imperfectly  ballasted,  or  one  where  the  align- 
ment is  wrong. 

The  cost  of  keeping  locomotives  and  machinery 
in  good  condition  is  very  much  dependent  upon 
the  carefulness  with  which  they  are  kept  cleaned 
and  housed  when  not  in  use.  The  rolling  stock 
that  is  kept  well  painted  and  in  good  repair  is  not 
so  expensive  to  maintain  as  the  equipment  that 
is  neglected  and,  while  present  outlay  for  repairs, 


528         BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

cleaning,  housing  and  painting  may  be  a  burden, 
it  will  result  in  more  satisfactory  returns  to 
owners  than  a  contrary  course. 

What  I  have  said  in  reference  to  machinery 
and  rolling  stock  applies  to  every  branch  of  the 
service.  Thus,  the  increased  disbursements  to 
meet  interest  on  money  expended  for  overhead 
bridges  or  viaducts  at  busy  points  is,  in  many 
cases,  more  than  counterbalanced  by  freedom 
from  accidents  and  saving  in  wages  and  other 
expenses. 

The  wisdom  of  providing  needed  appliances  for 
conducting  business  is  perceptible,  everywhere, 
in  reduced  expenses.  Thus,  the  introduction  of 
a  new  piece  of  machinery,  a  copying  press,  a  pat- 
ent ink,  a  new  blank  or  other  contrivance  in- 
tended to  simplify  or  cheapen,  frequently  renders 
a  reduction  of  the  force  possible,  or  prevents  an 
increase  otherwise  unavoidable.  Innumerable 
illustrations  of  this  nature  might  be  cited. 

The  usefulness  and  perpetuity  of  a  plant  is  in- 
definitely heightened  and  prolonged  by  its  main- 
tenance at  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  machinery  and  equip- 
ment, as  I  have  noticed.  Such  property  should 
be  maintained  at  the  maximum  state  of  efficiency. 
The  life  of  a  car,  locomotive  or  stationary  engine 
may  be  greatly  prolonged  by  prompt  repair  of 
the  various  parts  as  rendered  necessary,  while 
neglect  will  hasten  the  general  breaking  up. 
The  necessity  of  maintaining  property  is  well 
understood  by  managers;  but  they  are  often 


FACILITIES  AFFECT  COST  OF  OPERATING.     529 

overruled  in  the  matter,  not  being  allowed  the 
funds  necessary  to  carry  on  needed  repairs. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  shortsightedness 
of  such  a  policy,  and  a  company  thus  adminis- 
tered is  an  unsafe  enterprise  to  invest  in. 


34    Vol.  13 


CHAPTER   XV. 

MAINTENANCE — THINGS  THAT    ENTER   INTO   THE 
MAINTENANCE   OF    A  RAILROAD. 

Railway  maintenance  presents  itself  under 
various  aspects,  such  as  the  preservation  of  the 
material  property,  the  maintenance  of  the  rights 
of  railways  under  their  charters  or  acts  of  incor- 
poration, the  building  up  of  the  esprit  de  corps  of 
the  forces  (a  matter  of  vital  importance  to  the 
public,  the  owner  and  the  employe),  the  educa- 
tion of  officers  and  employes  in  the  things  that 
pertain  to  railway  operations,  and  so  on. 

All  these  phases  of  the  subject  receive  more  or 
less  attention  throughout  these  volumes.  They 
are  a  part  of  the  science  of  railways  and  not  the 
less  important  because  not  forming  a  part  of  the 
daily  thoughts  of  officers  and  employes. 

The  particular  phase  of  railway  maintenance 
which  I  wish  to  consider  in  this  chapter  relates 
mainly  to  the  effect  of  certain  influences. 

I  have  mentioned  in  another  place  the  possi- 
bility that  through  the  unwise  exactions  of  labor 
it  may  some  time  be  found  necessary  to  close  up 
a  railway,  or  group  of  railways,  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period,  because  of  the  impossibility  of 
procuring  men  to  operate  them.  Such  a  contin- 
gency does  not  seem  likely,  nor  did  it  seem  likely 

(530) 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  531 

a  few  years  ago,  when  a  great  system,  extending 
over  several  states,  was  suddenly  paralyzed  for  a 
similar  reason.  Yet  the  event  actually  occurred. 
Moreover,  the  circumstances  were  such  as  to 
suggest  the  possibility  of  its  recurrence.  Let  us 
suppose  that  for  some  reason  every  railroad  man, 
or  the  great  bulk  of  them,  struck,  as  they  did  in 
the  particular  section  I  have  referred  to.  In  such 
event,  the  operation  of  railroads  would  be  impos- 
sible. No  other  course  would  be  left  to  owners 
but  to  shut  up  their  property. 

Where  labor  has  the  disposition  to  organize 
and  act  in  concert  over  a  great  extent  of  coun- 
try, everything  is  possible.  The  nineteenth  cen- 
tury is  peculiarly  the  age  of  possibilities  of  this 
nature.  Centralization  is  its  watchword.  We 
observe  it  in  the  growth  of  corporations,  man- 
ufactories and  other  enterprises.  It  was  the 
concentration  of  capital,  perhaps,  that  suggested 
the  centralization  of  labor — the  delegating  to  an 
agent  the  right  to  arbitrarily  control  the  many. 
The  co-operative  organization  of  labor,  however, 
is  more  extended  than  that  of  capital.  The  lat- 
ter is  necessarily  restricted  and  isolated  in  its 
efforts.  Labor  groups  great  masses  of  men  em- 
ployed far  apart  over  wide  areas  of  country. 
If  these  organizations  are  not  wisely  governed, 
they  will  ultimately  involve  a  corresponding 
centralization  of  capital.  Certainly  they  will 
render  the  continuance  of  business  under  exist- 
ing conditions  impossible.  Not  only  will  the 
railway  system  be  broken  up,  but  all  other 


532       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

industrial  interests  will  be  disturbed,  and  in 
many  cases  destroyed. 

In  the  event  railways  were  closed  under  cir- 
cumstances such  as  I  have  named,  the  duration 
of  the  suspension  would  depend  very  largely  on 
the  disposition  and  ability  of  the  people  to  pro- 
tect those  who  sought  to  reopen  them.  Mean- 
while the  calamities  that  would  grow  out  of  the 
upheaval  would  require  many  years  to  heal. 

What  conditions  would  attend  a  general  cessa- 
tion of  railway  operations?  Could  the  owners  of 
railroads  permit  their  property  to  lie  idle?  Do 
railroad  companies  possess  the  passive  element 
that  is  so  great  a  source  of  strength  to  capital 
invested  in  other  enterprises?  It  is  here  that  a 
secret  of  the  power  of  capital  lies.  Its  growth, 
beneficent  influence  and  perpetuity  depend  upon 
the  possession  of  this  source  of  strength.  When 
no  longer  able  to  exercise  this  negative  force,  it 
will  cease  to  exist. 

What  is  the  effect  of  idleness  upon  railroad 
property?  Wherein  does  it  deteriorate?  What 
is  the  extent  of  the  deterioration?  What  out- 
lay does  the  maintenance  of  a  railway  involve? 
Should  owners  suffer  a  great  loss  in  the  effort  to 
maintain  the  rights  of  their  property,  or  should 
they  effect  an  immediate  settlement  with  disaf- 
fected employes,  on  the  best  terms  possible?  It 
is  upon  such  questions  that  the  contingency  of 
a  railway  company  closing  its  affairs  for  six 
months,  or  a  year,  or  two  years,  may  hinge,  and 
upon  the  wisdom  and  courage  governing  those 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  533 

making  the  decision,  the  future  of  mankind  may 
depend. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  railway  company  decides, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  can  no  longer  operate 
its  property  in  harmony  with  what  it  considers 
to  be  its  interest  and  the  interest  of  the  public,  to 
close  its  business  until  such  time  as  its  just  rights 
are  accorded. 

What  would  be  the  expense  of  maintaining  its 
property  under  such  conditions?  The  question 
is  an  interesting  one  and  suggests  careful  inquiry. 

In  the  event  of  the  suspension  of  a  railway, 
what  would  be  the  effect  upon  the  property? 
What  would  be  the  minimum  amount  it  would 
be  necessary  to  expend  to  preserve  it  from  seri- 
ous deterioration  ?  These  questions  cannot  be 
definitely  answered.  Having  no  income,  cost,  it 
is  manifest,  would  have  to  be  raised  by  assess- 
ments if  no  reserves  were  laid  by  to  meet  such 
contingencies.  But  in  regard  to  reserves:  Is  it 
not  incumbent  upon  every  company  to  possess, 
according  to  its  ability,  a  reserve  fund  of  this 
nature?  Is  it  not  a  part  of  the  machinery  of 
maintenance?  The  fund  need  not  be  unproduc- 
tive. Judiciously  placed,  it  will  be  a  source  of 
income  as  well  as  strength.  Its  effect,  moreover, 
will  be  evinced  in  the  market  value  of  a  com- 
pany's securities.  It  will  be  in  the  nature  of  a 
guaranty,  enabling  its  possessor  to  meet  every 
call  upon  him.  With  such  a  fund  taxes  could 
be  paid,  sinking  funds  met,  interest  on  mort- 
gages satisfied,  and  the  expense  of  maintenance 


534      BUILDING  AND  REP  Aim  NO  RAILWAYS. 

provided  for  a  period  proportionate  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  fund,  without  reference  to  current 
receipts. 

It  may  be  assumed,  I  think,  in  the  event  a 
company  found  it  necessary  to  suspend  business, 
that  the  great  bulk  of  its  bondholders  would 
waive  interest  payments  for  awhile.  The  reserve 
fund  would  provide  for  the  balance.  The 
amount  of  the  fund  should  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  taxes,  interest,  tolls,  sinking  funds  and 
expense  of  maintenance.  Expenditures  for  the 
last  named  purpose  are  imperative.  They  must 
be  met  as  they  accrue,  otherwise  the  owner  suf- 
fers enormous  usury  for  neglect  to  preserve  his 
property.  Would  the  cost  of  maintenance  be  so 
great  as  to  prevent  the  proprietor  meeting  it?  I 
think  not,  if  he  possessed  a  moderate  reserve  fund. 

Stripped  of  all  glamour,  railway  property  dif- 
fers very  little  from  other  property  used  in  manu- 
facturing, except  that  it  is  scattered  over  a  wide 
territory.  In  the  case  of  private  manufacturers, 
their  property  lies  within  a  narrow  limit  and 
when  not  in  use  the  gates  are  shut  and  the  pub- 
lic excluded,  so  that,  no  matter  how  great  its 
value,  its  guardianship  is  compassed  within  the 
care  of  a  watchman.  He  not  only  serves  to  pro- 
tect the  property,  but  helps  to  prevent  its  deteri- 
oration. Unfortunately,  this  simple  disposition 
is  impossible  in  the  case  of  railroad  property. 
Widely  scattered,  it  is  everywhere  exposed.  Its 
greatest  security  lies  in  the  difficulty  of  destroy- 
ing or  removing  it.  This  renders  it  possible  for 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  535 

the  police  force  of  a  country  to  look  after  its 
protection  (if  it  is  so  inclined)  without  material 
outlay.  This  feature  would  be  of  especial  value 
to  a  company  compelled  to  stop  business.  Only 
that  portion  of  its  property  endangered  by  fire 
would  require  especial  guardianship.  Even  here 
the  risk  would  be  slight.  Moreover,  in  consider- 
ing the  safety  of  railroad  property  under  condi- 
tions such  as  I  have  named,  we  must  remember 
that  the  state  must  aid  the  proprietor,  he  being 
a  taxpayer.  In  the  event  it  does  not,  it  must 
reimburse  him  for  any  damage  he  suffers. 
Losses,  therefore,  that  arise  from  the  acts  of 
mobs  or  lawless  combinations  must  be  reim- 
bursed and  thus  will  not  fall  upon  the  proprie- 
tors of  railroads,  except  in  so  far  as  they  are 
taxed  with  others.  The  exercise  of  reasonable 
precautions  in  the  preservation  of  the  property  of 
a  railroad  is,  however,  under  all  circumstances  a 
duty.  This  duty  railway  companies  have  never 
disregarded.  So  that,  in  the  event  they  closed 
their  properties,  they  would  still  continue  to  ex- 
ercise general  and  constant  watchfulness.  The 
expense  of  this  would  be  chargeable  to  mainte- 
nance. Would  the  duty  require  special  watch- 
men, or  would  the  force  required  to  keep  up  the 
organization  be  sufficient?  I  think  the  latter. 
In  determining,  therefore,  the  force  necessary  to 
maintain  a  property,  we  also  cover  its  protecting 
force,  except  in  isolated  cases. 

The  maintenance  of  the  property  of  a  railroad 
involves  many  things  not  capable  of  demonstra- 


536       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

tion  in  advance;  contingencies  that  we  cannot 
foresee  nor  estimate,  because  dependent  upon 
circumstances  and  the  peculiar  features  of  a 
property. 

In  considering  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  road, 
the  cost  of  maintenance  of  organization  must  not 
be  overlooked.  This  latter,  however,  in  the  case 
of  a  property  closed  to  business,  would  depend 
upon  whether  the  cessation  was  for  a  long  or 
short  period.  If  the  former,  the  cost  would  not 
be  nearly  so  great  as  if  the  stoppage  were  for 
a  short  period.  If  the  cessation  were  likely  to 
extend  over  a  long  period,  the  traffic  organiza- 
tion, or  that  portion  of  the  force  connected  with 
or  growing  out  of  the  conduct  of  business,  could 
be  wholly  dispensed  with,  or  so  greatly  reduced 
as  to  be  no  longer  distinguishable  as  an  organiza- 
tion. If,  however,  the  stoppage  were  only  for  a 
short  or  indefinite  period,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  preserve  at  least  the  nucleus  of  an  organiza- 
tion, such  portion  of  the  force  as  would  render 
the  resumption  of  business  practicable  without 
great  delay.* 

If  the  stoppage  were  likely  to  continue  over  a 
long  period,  many  expenses  that  under  other 
circumstances  would  be  necessary,  might  be 
avoided.  Thus  the  cost  of  keeping  up  the  road 
at  a  point  that  would  permit  the  daily  movement 

*  Unless,  indeed,  it  was  assumed  that  the  whole  force  might 
be  brought  together  again  at  will,  in  which  event  the  whole 
traffic  force  might  be  dispensed  with.  This  is  what  would  prob- 
ably be  done. 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  537 

of  trains  at  ordinary  rates  of  speed  would  not  be 
required.  It  would  not  be  necessary  to  repair 
from  day  to  day  the  inroads  of  storms  or  the 
damages  caused  by  frost,  and  expenses  attending 
the  use  of  bridges,  culverts,  buildings  and  ma- 
chinery might  be  wholly  avoided,  or  it  would  be 
necessary  at  best  to  give  them  only  cursory  atten- 
tion. Effort  would  be  directed  merely  to  pre- 
serving the  property  from  permanent  injury. 
Thus  maintained,  considerable  time  would  be 
required  to  place  it  in  shape  for  resuming  active 
operations  when  the  embargo  was  lifted.  Build- 
ings would  have  to  be  put  in  order,  tracks  re- 
paired, bridges  and  culverts  looked  after,  and  a 
thousand  things  attended  to  before  general  re- 
sumption would  be  possible.  The  delay  would 
be  unavoidable,  as  the  resources  of  the  strongest 
company  would  not  warrant  it  in  keeping  up  its 
property  at  the  maximum  point  of  efficiency 
throughout  an  indefinite  period.  In  attempting, 
therefore,  to  determine  the  cost  of  maintain- 
ing a  property  without  reference  to  traffic, 
all  the  conditions  must  be  known.  If  resump- 
tion of  business  were  likely  to  occur  within 
a  reasonable  time,  the  expense  of  maintenance 
would  not  be  much  less  than  during  active 
operations. 

The  disintegration  of  property  from  natural 
causes  is  very  nearly  the  same,  whether  used  or 
not.  If  cessation  of  business  were  likely  to 
extend  over  an  indefinite  period,  the  advisability 
of  reducing  expenses  would  be  so  great  that  we 


538        LVILD1NG  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

may  be  sure  every  outlay  would  be  cut  down  to 
the  lowest  possible  figure.* 

The  maintenance  of  a  property  covers  many 
great  expenses  arising  from  natural  causes. 
Little  has  been  done  to  determine  the  amount  of 
these  expenses  aside  from  traffic.  Few  things  are 
less  understood.  Every  expense  being  primarily 
due  to  traffic,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
effect  a  separation.  Business  being  the  incentive 
to  construct  a  railway,  the  whole  cost  of  operat- 
ing is  properly  chargeable  thereto.  Thus,  rates 
must  conform  to  cost,  or  if  they  fall  short  bank- 
ruptcy follows.  Many  expenses  do  not  depend 
except  primarily  on  traffic,  but  in  attempting  to 
separate  the  cost  of  maintenance  arising  from 
natural  causes  from  that  due  to  traffic,  I  do  not 
wish  to  be  understood  that  such  expenditures  are 
distinct  from  traffic  or  that  traffic  has  no  obliga- 
tion to  bear  the  burden. 

Any  attempt  to  separate  the  fixed  expenses  of 
maintenance  from  those  occasioned  by  traffic 
must  be  largely  speculative,  but  a  separation, 
however  imperfect,  cannot  but  possess  great 
interest  to  those  who  own  and  operate  railways. 
It  enables  them  to  view  many  questions  from  a 
higher  standpoint  than  they  otherwise  would,  and 
proves  valuable  in  directing  inquiry  into  other 

*  It  is  possible,  in  the  event  a  railroad  company  found  it 
impossible  to  operate  its  property,  that  the  wisest  course  to 
pursue  would  be  to  dismiss  the  whole  force.  Such  a  course,  it 
is  probable,  would  be  thought  the  safer  one  to  pursue  and  the 
one  most  likely  to  bring  about  a  quick  and  satisfactory  settle- 
ment. 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  539 

and  collateral  subjects.  Knowledge  is  not  of  so 
much  value  for  a  specific  thing  as  for  its  contin- 
gent revelations  and  the  thoughts  it  suggests. 
And  so  it  will  prove  here.  Even  the  most  imper- 
fect statement  of  the  expenses  of  maintenance  of 
railways  affords  suggestions  in  other  directions 
to  those  who  do  not  regard  the  information  in 
itself  of  value.  Thus,  while  a  manager  may  not 
care  what  relation  fixed  expenses  of  maintenance 
bear  to  total  expenses,  yet  the  information  is 
valuable  to  him  in  other  directions  or  in  special 
instances.  Take  the  case  of  track  rails  for  illus- 
tration. Experts  with  whom  I  have  communi- 
cated as  to  the  relative  deterioration  of  rails  from 
climate  and  traffic,  have  stated  that  a  rail  would 
remain  fit  for  use  forever,  if  trains  were  not  run 
over  it.  Others  put  the  deterioration  from 
climatic  causes  at  two  per  cent. ;  others  again  at 
five  per  cent.,  and  so  on.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
deterioration  of  rails  from  climatic  causes,  while 
not  great,  is  marked  and  cumulative.  Deteriora- 
tion of  other  material  is  much  greater.  How- 
ever, I  cannot  enter  here  into  a  scientific  dis- 
cussion of  the  effect  of  climatic  influences 
upon  material.  I  am  not  competent  to  do  so. 
I  merely  cite  the  case  of  rails  to  illustrate 
the  lack  of  information  on  the  subject  by  those 
whose  duties  lie  wholly  in  this  particular  depart- 
ment. 

The  natural  decay  of  railway  property  is,  in 
many  cases,  much  greater  than  the  damage  occa- 
sioned by  use.  Where  the  business  is  great  the 


540       BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS, 

relation  of  fixed  expense  of  maintenance  to  traffic 
is,  of  course,  less. 

Whatever  a  property  suffers  from  natural  de- 
cay is  a  fixed  expense.  Cost  of  organization  is 
also,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  fixed  charge.  It  is, 
however,  never  the  same.  It  is  much  less,  rela- 
tively, for  a  company  actively  engaged  than  when 
the  contrary  is  the  case,  for  the  reason  that  in  the 
former  instance  a  proportion  of  the  cost  is  merged 
in  current  business.  Thus,  a  superintendent  will 
not  only  maintain  the  property,  but  also  superin- 
intend  its  business.  In  either  case  he  is  essential, 
and  while  he  must  possess  greater  diversity  of 
knowledge  to  enable  him  to  attend  to  both  these 
duties  than  to  either  singly,  yet  the  increased 
cost  is  not  great. 

The  number  of  skilled  laborers  required  in  the 
operations  of  railroads  is  much  greater  than  is 
supposed.  They  form,  to  a  certain  extent,  part 
of  the  organization,  but  embrace  many  men  not 
usually  classed  under  this  head.  Everyone  under- 
stands that  an  engineer  must  be  technically  qual- 
ified; the  value  of  skill  upon  the  part  of  the 
fireman  is  also  understood.  The  necessity  of 
technical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  machinists  is 
equally  wrell  known;  but  minor  officials,  clerks 
and  foremen  must  also  possess  technical  skill  of 
a  high  order,  coupled  with  a  practical  knowledge 
of  the  property  and  its  business.  This  is  not  so 
well  known.  No  class  of  labor  possesses  so  much 
technical  knowledge  as  the  clerical  force  of  a 
railroad,  and  by  clerical  force  I  mean  the  body  of 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  541 

employes  concerned  in  the  movement  of  traffic, 
including  those  connected  with  accounts  and 
finances.  They  are  the  fingers  of  the  organiza- 
tion, and,  in  a  great  sense,  its  intellectual  force. 
The  affairs  of  a  railroad  are  so  great,  and  extend 
over  so  wide  a  range  of  thought,  that  managers 
can  do  little  more  than  use  the  information  the 
clerical  force  collects.  This  force,  however,  in 
the  event  of  the  stoppage  of  business  on  a  rail- 
road, would  have  nothing  to  do,  and,  therefore, 
would  be  dispensed  with.  But  only  those  who 
have  watched  the  growth  of  a  railroad,  and  the 
patience  required  to  build  up  an  efficient  force, 
can  estimate  the  loss  its  abandonment  would 
finally  entail.  However,  necessity  does  not  rec- 
ognize distinctions  of  this  kind.  If,  therefore, 
through  upheavals  of  labor  or  other  disorders,  a 
railway  were  compelled  to  suspend  business  in- 
definitely, it  would  come  out  of  the  struggle 
stripped  of  its  organization  in  this  respect.  No 
attempt,  therefore,  need  be  made  here  to  deter- 
mine the  fixed  expenses  for  such  railroads  on  this 
account. 

A  fixed  expense  of  Organization  (or  Manage- 
ment) under  normal  conditions  is  the  pay  of 
officers  and  employes  necessary  to  the  conduct  of 
traffic.  This  force  embraces  the  management, 
heads  of  departments  and  chiefs  of  bureaus  and 
their  immediate  assistants.  Those,  in  fact,  pos- 
sessing a  knowledge  of  the  departments  and 
versed  in  the  company's  affairs.  Such  a  force 
cannot  be  secured  at  will,  and  business  cannot  be 


542        BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

carried  on  without  it.  It  grows  with  the  cor- 
poration, and  should  become  more  efficient  every 
year.  The  necessary  force  of  a  road  also  em- 
braces the  agents  at  stations,  and  if  business  is 
great,  their  immediate  assistants;  those,  in  fact, 
who  possess  high  technical  knowledge.  They 
constitute  a  fixed  charge.  Those  engaged  in 
mechanical  or  simple  work  about  the  offices, 
warehouses  and  other  buildings  do  not,  as  they 
may  be  replaced  at  will. 

The  cost  of  watching  a  property  is  not  a  fixed 
expense,  or  at  least  is  only  partially  so,  as  this 
duty  may  be  performed  by  employes  who  form  a 
part  of  the  fixed  cost.  The  nucleus  of  a  train 
force  is  a  fixed  expense  of  maintenance.  In  the 
case  of  conductors  and  baggagemen  it  embraces, 
let  us  say,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  force.  The  skill 
of  this  body  constitutes  the  nucleus  of  a  complete 
organization.  In  the  same  way  ten  per  cent,  of 
the  engineers  and  firemen  may  be  denominated 
as  fixed.  Such  a  train  force  would  prove  ample 
to  guard  the  rolling  stock  and  machinery  and 
maintain  it  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency. 

The  technical  force  retained  by  a  company 
(under  the  conditions  I  have  named)  may  be 
further  utilized  in  the  physical  maintenance  of 
the  property,  and  thus  serve  a  double  purpose. 
Employes  occupied  in  soliciting  business  do  not 
constitute  a  fixed  expense.  Similarly,  operat- 
ing expenses  covering  personal  injuries,  con- 
tingent expenses,  stationery,  printing,  supplies, 
advertising  and  lubricants  belong  to  traffic,  or 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  543 

if  any  portion  is  a  fixed  expense  it  is  nominal 
only. 

The  forces  of  a  railroad  that  constitute  a  fixed 
charge  will  find,  in  the  main,  active  employment, 
even  if  the  property  is  closed.  However,  it  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that  there  would  be  no  re- 
duction in  the  wages  of  this  force.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  probable  that  a  very  large  reduction 
would  be  made.  The  necessity  of  such  a  course 
and  its  justness  would  be  apparent,  and  would 
be  cheerfully  acquiesced  in.  The  amount  of  this 
reduction  would,  it  is  probable,  approximate  fifty 
per  cent.  That  it  would  involve  hardship,  goes 
without  saying,  but  as  this  hardship  would  ex- 
tend to  the  owners  of  the  property  as  well,  it 
would  be  borne  cheerfully.  If  the  suspension 
were  likely  to  be  of  long  continuance,  the  re- 
duction would  be  even  greater.  However,  fifty 
per  cent,  may,  I  think,  be  estimated  as  the  aver- 
age. In  reference  to  the  force  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  discharge  (in  the  event  of  suspension),  it 
is  probable  the  majority  of  the  men  would  await 
re-employment.  This  would  certainly  be  the 
case  if  the  stoppage  were  not  likely  to  be  of  long 
duration,  or  if  the  circumstances  attending  dis- 
missal did  not  involve  personal  animosities.  It 
would  be  apparent  to  men  thus  situated  that 
their  interests  would  be  more  likely  to  be  con- 
served by  awaiting  re-employment  than  by  seek- 
ing engagement  elsewhere.  It  might  be  necessary 
in  some  cases  (as  it  would  indeed  be  both  politic 
and  wise  wherever  possible),  to  allow  this  wait- 


544      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

ing  force  a  small  sum  monthly.  Such  a  course 
would  be  eminently  humane,  if  the  resources  of  a 
company  permitted.  I  assume,  of  course,  in  sug- 
gesting this  gratuity,  that  harmony  of  relation- 
ship exists  between  employer  and  employe. 

The  best  of  feeling  should  ever  be  maintained 
between  railroad  companies  and  their  employes. 
It  is  possible,  indeed  probable,  that  the  latter  may 
have  more  or  less  grievances,  real  and  imagined, 
but  that  these  grievances  are  such  as  to  justify 
indifference  or  disloyalty  is  impossible.  Nor  can 
they  be  so  great  as  not  to  be  more  likely  to  be 
amicably  arranged  by  conciliatory  measures  than 
by  strikes  or  other  violent  means.  The  interest 
of  the  proprietor  in  those  who  operate  his  prop- 
erty is  too  intimate,  too  vital,  to  permit  him  to 
disregard  their  welfare  or  to  refuse  to  remedy 
just  causes  of  complaint. 

And  above  all,  employes  should  not,  in  enumer- 
ating their  own  grievances,  forget  those  of  the 
employer.  No  intelligent  person  who  has  ob- 
served the  operation  of  corporations  carried  on 
by  hired  agents  but  must  have  noticed  innumer- 
able instances  of  neglect  on  the  part  of  such 
agents,  of  manifest  inefficiency,  gross  wasteful- 
ness, inattention  to  duty,  idleness,  and  other  evi- 
dences of  disregard  of  the  interests  of  the  owner. 
Every  such  instance  is  a  legitimate  and  proper 
subject  of  complaint  on  his  part,  and  while  he 
may  seek  to  prevent  such  acts,  still  his  efforts  in 
this  direction,  no  matter  how  watchfully  or  intel- 
ligently directed,  can-  never  be  wholly  successful. 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  545 

Employes,  therefore,  while  enumerating  their 
grievances,  should  not  be  unmindful  of  those  of 
their  employer. 

In  the  case  of  a  railroad,  the  identity  of  the 
proprietor  is  so  covered  up  in  the  multiplicity  of 
owners,  in  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  service, 
and  in  the  acts  of  managers  and  others,  that  we 
cannot  wonder  the  employe  sometimes  forgets 
there  is  an  owner — a  man  like  himself;  and  in  do- 
ing so  fails  to  recognize  his  rights  and  forgets  his 
own  duties  and  responsibilities.  If  the  owner 
possessed  greater  personality,  were  present  on  the 
ground,  were  a  person  to  whom  the  employe 
could  listen  and  might  appeal,  he  would  appre- 
ciate his  existence  more  vividly.  In  considering, 
therefore,  the  relations  which  exist  between 
capital  and  labor  in  connection  with  railroads, 
the  first  thing  for  the  employe  to  do  is  to  dismiss 
his  prejudices;  to  remember  that  if  he  has 
grievances,  so  also  has  the  owner,  and  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  grievances  of  the  latter  are  more  real 
than  those  of  the  employe.  No  railway  employe, 
not  blinded  by  passion,  but  knows  that  he  is,  as 
a  rule,  fairly  treated. 

The  grievances  of  employes  are  often  more 
imaginary  than  real,  and  when  real  come,  not 
from  the  owner,  as  a  rule,  but  from  those  he  is 
compelled  to  trust.  The  remedy  does  not,  there- 
fore, lie  in  indiscriminate  attacks  upon  property, 
but  in  an  appeal  to  owners. 

Too  great  care  cannot  be  exercised  by  employes 
of  corporations  not  to  confound  the  owner  with 

35    Vol.  13 


546       BUILDING  .AND  REPAIRING 

the  manager.  The  owner  will  never,  it  is  safe  to 
say;willfully  or  persistently  disregard  the  welfare 
of  his  employes.  Their  interests  are  so  inaliena- 
bly connected  with  his,  that  to  treat  them  un- 
fairly would  be  suicidal.  This  truth  is  not  always 
remembered  by  employes.  No  one  who  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  good  will  and  fidelity  of  others  for 
the  maintenance  of  his  interests,  like  the  owners 
of  railroads  are,  can  afford  to  permit  them  to 
remain  in  ignorance  of  his  good  intentions.  On 
the  contrary,  his  duty  and  interest  alike  demand 
that  he  should  cultivate  such  relations  with  them 
as  may,  at  all  times,  assure  them  of  his  friendly 
interest  in  their  welfare. 

Men  who  intrust  the  management  of  their 
property  to  others  must  do  so  unqualifiedly,  but 
such  delegation  of  power  should  never  extend  to 
the  relinquishment  of  the  right  and  duty  of  look' 
ing  after  the  welfare  of  their  employes.  A  pro- 
prietor will  ever  consult  his  welfare  by  such 
manifestation  of  interest  in  his  servants,  and  any 
neglect  to  fulfill  this  cardinal  duty  of  ownership 
will  redound  to  his  injury.  By  many  owners 
manifestation  of  such  interest  is  thought  to  be 
subversive  of  discipline.  The  answer  to  this  is 
that  when  an  owner  cannot  come  in  contact  with 
his  employes  without  jeopardizing  discipline,  it 
ought  not  to  require  an  outbreak  of  his  servants, 
or  the  destruction  of  his  property,  to  convince 
him  that  there  is  a  defect  somewhere  in  the 
method  of  administering  his  property.  Discipline 
that  is  dependent  upon  terrorism,  upon  ostracis- 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  547 

ing  (or  sequestrating)  the  employe,  upon  separat- 
ing him  from  the  acquaintance  or  sympathy  of 
the  owner,  is  a  gross  perversion  of  responsible 
methods  of  government,  and  wherever  practiced 
may  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  a  disregard  of 
the  rights  of  owners.  If  the  history  of  corpora- 
tions in  the  United  States  teaches  one  fact  more 
clearly  than  another,  it  is  that  the  owners  of 
corporate  property  must  personally  interest  them- 
selves in  the  affairs  of  their  employes,  lest  their 
personality  be  forgotten  and  their  property  lost. 

Ownership  of  property  presupposes  the  duty  of 
guardianship,  including  a  paternal  interest  in  the 
operative,  and  its  preservation  to  the  owner  will 
ever  depend  upon  the  general  and  wise  exercise 
of  his  duty  in  this  regard. 

Continuing  our  examination  of  the  cost  of 
maintaining  a  railroad.  This  cost  is  much  in- 
creased by  the  interference  offered  by  traffic. 
Thus,  repairs  of  track  are  retarded  by  the  passing 
of  trains  and  the  diverting  influences  that  attend 
their  movement.  Necessary  repairs  to  equip- 
ment and  machinery  are  oftentimes  delayed  be- 
cause of  the  pressing  need  for  their  use  in  handling 
traffic.  Many  other  instances  might  be  cited  if 
necessary. 

Insurance  of  property  is  a  fixed  expense,  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  it  covers  current  traffic.  Prac- 
tices in  regard  to  insurance  are  not  uniform. 
In  some  cases  it  is  the  policy  to  insure  every- 
thing. Other  companies  restrict  their  insurance 
to  particular  instances  of  special  importance. 


548      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

Others,  again,  do  not  insure  at  all.  I  do  not 
know  that  the  circumstances  likely  to  attend  a 
cessation  of  business  would  be  such  as  to  require 
that  a  company's  policy  in  this  respect,  whatever 
it  might  be,  should  be  changed.  Risk  from  the 
movement  of  trains  and  the  conduct  of  business 
generally  would,  it  is  apparent,  be  much  less 
than  under  normal  conditions,  while  damages 
arising  from  the  acts  of  mobs  would  have  to  be 
made  good  by  the  government.  No  two  com- 
panies view  the  question  of  insurance  from  the 
same  standpoint,  and  no  estimate  can,  therefore, 
be  made  as  to  the  extent  of  a  company's  expend- 
itures in  this  connection.  After  considerable 
observation  of  the  effect  of  insurance  and  non- 
insurance,  I  should  not  think  a  company  justified 
in  expending  a  large  amount  in  this  direction 
unless  its  surplus  were  abundant  and  well  assured. 
The  magnitude  of  its  interests  renders  it  quite 
proper  for  it  to  assume  risks  of  this  nature.  The 
cost  of  insuring  the  property  of  a  company  may 
be  reduced  to  the  minimum,  in  the  event  of  stop- 
page of  business  from  a  strike  or  otherwise. 
Whatever  is  paid  in  this  direction  constitutes  a 
fixed  charge. 

Considered  from  the  standpoint  of  organization 
and  proprietorship,  the  taxes  of  a  property  con- 
stitute a  fixed  expense  without  reference  to  the 
basis  upon  which  they  are  predicated.  In  this 
last  respect  the  widest  differences  exist.  In  some 
cases  taxes  are  based  on  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty. In  others  upon  earnings.  The  amount  and 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  549 

value  of  outstanding  capital  is  sometimes  the 
factor.  When  the  tax  is  based  on  property,  the 
levy  would  be  the  same  if  the  road  were  not 
operated,  though  it  is  possible  a  reduction  might 
be  made  under  such  circumstances.  Certainly  it 
should  be,  as  it  is  manifest  that  property  of  this 
kind  which  is  earning  nothing  is,  constructively 
at  least,  worth  nothing  and  ought  not  to  be  taxed 
except  upon  a  nominal  basis.  Practically,  however, 
only  a  small  reduction  would  probably  be  made. 
When  taxes  are  based  on  earnings,  it  is  manifest 
that  a  cessation  of  business  would  mean  cessation 
of  taxes,  unless  the  stoppage  were  so  prolonged 
as  to  suggest  some  other  basis.  In  any  event, 
however,  the  extent  of  a  company's  obligations 
for  taxes,  whatever  they  may  be,  become,  in  the 
case  of  an  idle  property,  a  fixed  charge. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  accurately  what 
proportion  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  railway 
property  arises  from  climatic  causes.  Two 
methods  suggest  themselves  by  which  to  estimate 
the  amount.  The  first  is  by  a  survey  of  the 
property  in  which  every  feature  shall  be  ascer- 
tained. This  method  is  the  best  when  practicable. 
But,  unfortunately,  it  is  not  generally  practicable. 
The  second  that  suggest  itself  is  the  relation 
which  cost  of  maintenance  bears  to  the  total  cost 
of  operating.  It  is  only  approximate  and  not 
reliable  for  our  purpose. 

Different  properties  are  affected  by  different 
climatic  influences.  Thus,  the  railways  of  the 
North  and  the  South  have  dissimilar  conditions  to 


550      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

meet.  Those  of  each  section  necessitate  peculiar 
outlays.  Thus,  deterioration  of  wood  in  the  South 
is  much  more  rapid  than  in  the  North,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  Northern  roads  suffer  greatly 
from  frost  and  the  abrupt  changes  peculiar  to  a 
cold  country.  The  conditions  most  favorable  to 
the  preservation  of  material  are  a  mild,  dry 
climate,  but  it  is  probable  the  roads  of  tha  South 
have,  on  the  whole,  advantages  over  those  of 
other  localities  in  the  cheapness  with  which  they 
operate  and  maintain  their  properties. 

More  than  anything  else,  fixed  expense  of 
maintenance  is  dependent  upon  quality  of  mate- 
rial, the  measure  of  intelligence  evinced  in  locat- 
ing and  constructing  a  line,  and  finally  the  skill 
exercised  in  protecting  the  property.  The  nature 
of  the  structure  is  important;  stone  is  more 
durable  than  wood;  brick  more  lasting  than  grout. 
But  the  duration  of  the  structure  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  care  with  which  it  is  con- 
structed and  looked  after.  This  rule  applies  to 
the  roadbed  and  its  ballast  as  fully  as  to  build- 
ings and  other  structures. 

The  cost  of  keeping  rolling  stock  in  repair  is 
greatly  increased  by  deterioration  from  natural 
causes.  This  deterioration  is  greater  when  the 
plant  is  actively  employed  than  if  carefully 
housed,  as  much  of  it  would  be  if  not  in  use. 
The  facilities  of  railroads  every  day  become  more 
ample,  but  they  do  not  as  yet  generally  contemplate 
placing  passenger  and  freight  cars  under  cover 
when  not  in  use.  This  adds  greatly  to  the  cost 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  551 

of  their  maintenance.  Referring  to  the  cost  of 
preserving  equipment,  an  interesting  writer  on 
the  subject  says:  "A  locomotive  taken  into  the 
shop  and  covered  with  tallow  would  be  ready  for 
service  with  very  slight  repair  to  the  stack  and 
other  parts.  The  atmosphere  would  have  a 
greater  effect  upon  freight  cars,  and  it  would  be 
necessary  to  paint  them  at  periods  (probably  of 
considerable  length),  even  if  not  in  use,  as  they 
would  suffer  from  dry  rot  and  other  causes. 
With  regard  to  passenger  cars  on  the  same 
basis,  the  percentage  would  not  be  so  great  as 
freight  cars,  as  the  material  and  finish  are  bet- 
ter, but  they  would  require  a  coat  of  varnish,  at 
long  intervals,  to  preserve  the  outside  paint." 

The  wear  and  tear  of  equipment  from  traffic  is, 
of  course,  proportionate  to  its  use,  but  cost  will 
ever  depend  largely  upon  the  intelligence  and 
promptness  with  which  repairs  are  made.  If 
locomotives  are  not  properly  painted,  cleaned 
and  housed;  if  passenger  cars  are  not  kept 
cleaned,  painted  and  varnished;  if  freight  cars 
are  not  kept  painted  and  repaired  as  needed;  if 
machinery  is  not  carefully  looked  after,  the  dete- 
rioration will  be  rapid  and  marked.  The  tele- 
graphic plant  of  a  company,  including  lines, 
furniture,  tools,  machinery,  batteries,  instru- 
ments and  other  appurtenances,  suffers  constant 
deterioration  from  natural  causes,  and  although 
lines  are  much  better  constructed  than  formerly, 
the  deterioration  has  only  been  lessened,  not 
obviated. 


552      BUILDING  AND  REPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  foregoing  that  differ- 
ences exist,  and  ever  will  exist,  as  to  the  outlay 
of  railroads,  that  arise  from  natural  causes. 
Accurate  data,  therefore,  in  regard  to  a  partic- 
ular road  will  not  be  conclusive  in  regard  to 
others.  It  will,  however,  afford  an  approximate 
estimate  in  many  cases,  for  however  greatly  rail- 
ways differ  from  each  other  in  particular  things, 
they  are  generally  uniform.  If,  therefore,  data 
were  obtainable  for  several  railroads,  this  aver- 
age would  afford  a  glimpse,  at  least  (but  not 
more),  of  railways  similarly  situated.  I  have 
this  data  for  a  period  of  twenty  years,  for  rail- 
ways thirty-five  hundred  miles  long,  located  in 
a  temperate  climate,  subject  to  such  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  great  lake 
region  of  the  United  States.  Conditions  here,  as 
regards  wages  and  cost  of  material,  are  those  of 
American  railways  generally.  The  results  are 
embodied  in  the  appendix  hereto.*  They  show  the 
relation  that  particular  items  of  maintenance  bear 
to  the  total  cost  of  maintenance.  Also  the  pro- 
portion that  cost  of  maintenance  bears  to  other 
expenses.  They  also  show  cost  arising  from 
climatic  causes,  and  the  expense  of  maintaining 
a  nucleus  of  organization.  I  have  not  attempted 
to  give  the  aggregate  cost  in  dollars  and  cents, 
but  to  show  the  relation  which  cost  bears  to  the 
current  cost  of  operating,  so  that  the  reader  has 
only  to  ascertain  what  each  operating  expense 

*  Appendices  C  and  D. 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  553 

amounts  to  upon  a  road  to  ascertain  approx- 
imately what  the  fixed  expense  is. 

The  maintenance  of  a  railway  involves,  as  I 
have  pointed  out,  innumerable  things.  Some  I 
have  specified;  others  only  hinted  at.  It  in- 
volves, directly  and  indirectly,  the  books,  blanks, 
forms  and  stationery  of  a  company;  its  furni- 
ture, fixtures  and  appliances;  a  proper  system  of 
accounts;  the  telegraph;  responsible  methods  of 
handling  money;  the  purchase,  inspection,  care 
and  use  of  material;  the  proper  employment  of 
labor;  the  government  of  the  corporation;  the 
handling  of  traffic;  the  issuance  of  tariffs  and 
classifications;  the  movement  of  trains;  above 
all,  the  maintenance  of  the  track.  I  have  said 
much  about  the  latter.  The  theme  is  an  impor- 
tant one.  That  of  equipment  and  machinery  is 
nearly,  if  not  quite.,  as  great.  This  subject,  how- 
ever, I  refer  to  in  the  book  devoted  to  Equip- 
ment, and  so  shall  not  discuss  it  here  further 
than  to  point  out  that  cost  is  dependent  here,  as 
elsewhere,  upon  the  care  and  foresight  exercised. 
Paint,  and  its  accessory,  varnish,  I  may  say  in  a 
word,  are  important  agents  in  this  connection. 
Material  of  this  nature  must  be  of  the  best  qual- 
ity, though  the  difference  in  cost  between  good 
and  bad  material  will  constantly  tempt  the  pur- 
chaser to  buy  the  latter.  In  the  preparation  of 
paints,  ingredients  require  to  be  carefully 
weighed  and  measured.  The  material  must  also 
be  pure  and  finely  ground.  The  colors  used  re- 
quire to  be  harmonious  and  permanent.  Work 


554      BUILDING  AND  KEPAIRING  RAILWAYS. 

of  this  nature  cannot  be  hurried.  Thus,  varnish 
must  be  thoroughly  dry  and  hard  before  being 
exposed  to  the  weather,  and  in  order  to  secure 
this  ample  covered  space,  well  lighted,  ventilated 
and  heated,  is  required.  If  conditions  necessitate 
it,  artificial  means  of  drying  must  be  resorted  to. 
In  order  to  secure  the  best  results,  the  varnish, 
after  it  is  applied,  should  be  well  rubbed  in,  so  as 
to  close  the  pores.  In  England,  where  much  at- 
tention has  been  given  the  subject,  a  coat  of  raw 
linseed  oil,  from  which  all  the  fatty  material  has 
been  extracted,  is  applied  to  the  varnish.  In 
cleaning,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  harmful  or 
destructive  methods,  such  as  the  use  of  very  hot 
water  or  chemicals,  otherwise  the  varnish  on  a 
car  may  be  quickly  ruined  after  the  vehicle 
leaves  the  shop.  In  painting,  questions  of  color 
are  not,  as  would  seem  at  first  glance,  entirely 
matters  of  taste.  Advocates  of  light  colors  claim 
that  the  varnish  holds  better  in  such  cases,  that 
it  is  easier  to  clean,  wears  better,  and  does  not 
absorb  the  heat  as  much  as  dark  colored  paint. 
On  the  other  hand,  dark  colors  show  the  dirt  less 
and  require  less  material. 

In  concluding,  I  repeat  what  I  have  so  fre- 
quently had  occasion  to  call  attention  to,  namely, 
that  cost  of  maintaining  railroads  (and  operating 
them  as  well)  is  dependent  upon  the  nature, 
location  and  business  of  properties,  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  they  are  built  and  the  effective- 
ness and  foresight  exercised  in  keeping  them  in 
order. 


THINGS  AFFECTING  MAINTENANCE.  555 

I  have  not  attempted  to  elaborate  the  subject 
unduly,  but  to  point  out  its  more  salient  features 
and  the  line  of  inquiry  to  be  considered.  I  have 
sought  also,  indirectly,  to  make  clear  to  those 
who  impose  obligations  upon  railroads  the  neces- 
sity of  their  discriminating;  of  tempering  the 
wind  to  the  shorn  lamb;  of  remembering  that 
while  the  enforcement  of  arbitrary  enactments 
without  reference  to  local  conditions  will  simplify 
official  labors,  the  result  will  be  disastrous  to  the 
properties  concerned.  The  business  of  a  railroad, 
like  every  other  business,  is  a  matter  of  detail 
and  must  be  so  considered.  It  is  just  as  proper 
to  make  hats  of  a  uniform  size  for  all  men  as  to 
prescribe  fixed  conditions  for  railroads.  As  well 
might  the  expenses  of  the  government  be  col- 
lected by  a  uniform  charge  per  head  on  men, 
women  and  children,  without  reference  to  their 
ability  to  pay,  as  to  seek  to  make  one  railroad 
the  measure  of  other  railroads. 


APPENDIXES, 


(657) 


APPENDIX   B. 

RELATION    THE    VARIOUS     ITEMS     OF     TRACK    LABOR 
BEAR   TO   EACH   OTHER. 

Labor,  handling  rails 3.68  per  cent. 

Labor,  handling  ties 9.56         " 

Labor,  ballasting 12.31 

Labor,  ditching 4.78 

Labor,  freshet  repairs 92         " 

Labor,  watching  track 1.25         " 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  snow  and  ice 6.62         " 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  weeds  and  grass 7.35 

Labor,  general  repairs  to  track  (including  cut- 
ting rails) 53.53 


100.00 

RELATION  THAT  VARIOUS  ITEMS   OF    TRACK  EXPENSES 
BEAR   TO    TOTAL   TRACK    EXPENSES. 

Labor,  handling  rails 2.23  per  cent. 

Labor,  handling  ties 5.79 

Labor,  ballasting 7.35         " 

Labor,  ditching 2.89 

Labor,  freshet  repairs 45 

Labor,  watching  track 67 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  snow  and  ice 4.01 

Labor,  clearing  track  of  weeds  and  grass 4.45 

Labor,  general  repairs  of  track  (including  cut- 
ting of  rails) 32.52 

Rails,  ties,  miscellaneous  track  material  and 

tools  , .  .    39.64 


100.00 


(559) 


APPENDIX    C. 

RELATION    VARIOUS   CLASSES    OF    MAINTENANCE    BEAR 
TO    TOTAL   COST    OF    MAINTENANCE. 

Maintenance  of  track 44. 25  per  cent. 

Maintenance  of  bridges  and  culverts 6 . 68         " 

Maintenance  of  buildings 6 . 98 

Maintenance  of  fences,  gates  and  crossings ...  2 . 46 

Maintenance  of  equipment 39 . 63 

100.00 


RELATION  OF  THE  COST  OF  MAINTAINING  THE  PROP- 
ERTY OF  A  ROAD  TO  ALL  OTHER  OPERATING  EX- 
PENSES. 

Maintenance  of  property 38.62  per  cent. 

Other  operating  expenses 61.38 


100.00 


(530) 


APPENDIX  D. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  THE  TOTAL  COST  OF  OPERATING  DUE  TO 
MAINTENANCE  OF  ORGANIZATION  AND  THE  PREVENTION 
OF  THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  THE  PROPERTY  FROM  NATURAL 
CAUSES. 


NAME  OF  ACCOUNT. 

PERCENTAGE    OF    THE    TOTAL 
OPERATING     EXPENSE    THAT 
COMES   UNDER    THE    HEAD   OF 
FIXED  CHARGES. 

2 

70 

Repairs  of  roadway  and  track  
Repairs  of  bridges,  culverts  and 
cattle  guards  

57 
75 

Repairs  of  buildings.         

70 

Repairs  of  fences,  road  crossings 

95 

8  .  5^1     In    the  case    of    a  f  5§ 

q      I  railroad  not  in  opera-  J  a  A 

Repairs  of  freight  cars  

•      f  t  i  o  n     the    expensed  "* 
10     J  would  be                       [$ 

Telegraph    expenses   (mainte- 
nance)   

10 

Agents         

50     ^ 

Clerks  

25          In  making  these  es- 

12  5  1  timates  the  wages  of 

Salaries  general  officers  and  their 

rthe  force  retained  are 
50      reduced  fifty  per  cent. 

Law  expenses                       

50    J 

Oil  waste  and  tallow       

Stationery  and  printing  

1 

Contingencies    (and    miscella- 

1 

10 

FIXED   CHARGES  OTHER  THAN 
OPERATING. 
Taxes  

f    Except  where  taxes 
100  J  are  Dase(*  on  earnings, 

i  or  special  reductions 
1  can  be  secured. 

Interest  on  funded  debt                 . 

100 

Sinking  fund  requirements  

100 

Leases,  contracts  and  agreements. 

100 

36    Vol.  13 


(561) 


APPENDIX  E. 


GAUGES   OF  RAILROADS    THAT   ARE    OR   HAVE    BEEN   IN   USE 
IN   DIFFERENT    COUNTRIES. 


GAUGE. 

GAUGE. 

GAUGE. 

GAUGE. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

0 

6 
6 

I* 

6 

Australia       

4 
5 
5 
3 
4 
IMe 
4 
1  Me 
4 
5 
1  Me 
*4 
3 
5 
5 
4 
3 
4 
t4 
*5 
*6 
4 
4 
5 
4 
3 
*3 
5 
4 
3 
4 
*5 
4 
5 
5 
5 
4 
4 
3 
4 
*2 

t« 

16 
4 

8/2 
3 
3 
6 

81/2 

tre 
8# 
tre 
3 
6 
tre 
BK 
6 
6 
6 

I* 
§£ 

0 
2 

8/2 
8/2 

3 

r- 

0 
3 

8/2 

6 

8/2 

0 

8* 
6 
0 
6 

8/2 

I'7' 

8/2 

0 
0 

10 
0 

8/s 

5 

3 

4 
5 

*5 

4 

J7 
*5 

*4 

4 

5 

*5 

s 

*5 

8 

6 
6 

?* 

6 

8/2 

0 
2 

8/2 
8^2 

6 
9 

8* 

0 

4 
5 

*3 

*3 
>§5 

#.| 
5 
*3 

0 
3 
6 

0 

s 

9 
6 

1/2 

*.J 

*3 
*5 

*4 

£ 

New  South  Wales  
Victoria  

South  Australia    ... 

Queensland  .        

Austria 

Argentine  Republic  
Belgium 

Brazil                            .  .  .  \ 

British  India 

Canada  

Cape  Colonies      .  . 

Ceylon 

Chili                         

Denmark 

Eevpt 

Great  Britain                     < 

Holland 

Ireland 

Italy  .. 

Japan 

Mexico  

New  Zealand 

North  Germany  

Norway            

Nova  Scotia.             

Panama 

Peru       

Portugal 

Russia  

Spain 

Sweden     

Switzerland 

Tasmania  

Turkey.            .        .        1 

United  States  < 

Uruguay  Republic  

*  Gauges  in  use  at  present  time,  January,  1897, 

t  Standard  Narrow. 

j  Standard  Broad. 

§  Standard  of  Ireland. 

||  Mount  Washington. 

1  Sterling  Mountain. 


APPENDIX  F. 

QUANTITY   OF    MATERIAL    REQUIRED    TO   LAY    ONE    MILE   OF 
RAILROAD   TRACK   ON    THE    BASIS   NAMED. 


DESCRIPTION. 

WEIGHT 

PER 

YARD. 

TONS. 

NUMBER. 

SIZE. 

^ 

651bs. 

102Atti 

352 

30  feet  in  length. 

72    " 

llSiVft 

352 

30    "    " 

Rails         .    < 

80    " 

125rVok 

352 

30    "    "        " 

85    " 

183jVA 

352 

30    "     " 

90    '• 

HliWo 

352 

30    "    " 

Te  inches  thick,  by  8  inches 

wide,  by  8  feet  long,  laid 

Ties  

3,017 

<!  at  a  distance  of  21  inches 

from  center  to  center  of 

j^each  tie. 

f5«4  inches  long  and  ft  inch 

Spikes  

12,068 

<j  thick,   measured    uuder 

\head. 

Baseplates.... 

352 

Angle  Bars 

704 

Bolts  

1,408 

Nut  Locks..... 

1,408 

'Number  required  provid- 

ed a  plate  is  put  on  each 

end  of  every   tie.     They 

Tie  Plates  

6,034 

^  are  seldom  used  continu- 

ously, however,  but,  as  a 

rule,  only  on  bridges,  tres- 

.tles  and  curves. 

Ballast  to  the  depth  of  12  inches  under  the  ties,  with  a  surface  of  10  feet, 
requires  3,060  cubic  yards  for  one  mile  of  track. 


(563) 


APPENDIX  G. 


Table  showing  increase  in  weight  of  locomotives  from  1880 
to  1900,  those  given  being  the  largest  and  heaviest  of  their 
respective  dates. 

1880. 


Name  of  R.  R. 
using  the 
Locomotive. 

Wt.  on 
drivers 
Ibs. 

Total 
Wt. 
Ibs. 

Driving 
Wheel 
Base. 

Total 
Wheel 
base. 

Class 
of 
Locomotive. 

Boston&  Albany. 

52  000 

77000 

8  wheel  type 

Fitchburg  — 
Phil.  &  Reading* 

93.800 
64,250 

108,750 
96,200 

14  ft.  9  in. 

6  "  6  " 

22  ft.  8tt  in. 
21   "  1      " 

Consolidation. 
Fast  Passenger. 

1900. 


Illinois  Central.. 
Illinois  Central- 
Union  

193,200 
194.000 
208,000 
133,000 
125.000 
126,000 
130,000 

232,200 
214,000 
230,000 
171,600 
166,000 
164.000 
164,000 

15ft 

16  ' 
15  • 
16  ' 
15  • 
14  ' 
15  ' 

.   91 
3 
7 
6 
8 
8 
9 

n. 

26  fl 
24 
24 
27 
26 
26 
26 

,.6  ii 
5 
0 
4 
11 
0 
6 

i. 

12  wheel  freight. 
Consolidation. 
Consolidation. 
10  wheel  passenger. 
10  wheel  passenger. 
10  wheel  passenger. 
12  wheel  or  masto- 
don type. 

Lake  Shore  
Grand  Trunk.  .. 
N.  Y.  Central... 
Fitchburg  

"Engines  411  and  506. 


(564) 


APPENDIX  H. 

DETAILED  RULES  GOVERNING  THE  LOCATION  OF  RAIL- 
WAYS.* 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  Construction  Department  will  have  charge  of  all  sur- 
veys and  construction  in  connection  with  the  building  of  new 
railways  or  extensions  of  existing  lines. 

The  Engineering  Department  will  have  charge  of  all  surveys 
and  engineering  connected  with  the  work  of  improving  lines 
already  built. 

The  organization  of  the  Construction  Department  will  be  as 
follows:  (1)  Chief  Engineer,  reporting  to  the  President.  (2) 
Division  Engineers,  with  jurisdiction  as  assigned  by  the  Chief 
Engineer.  (3)  Assistant  Engineers  in  charge  of  the  construc- 
tion of  a  line,  or  other  work  of  importance,  reporting  to  Divi- 
sion Engineers.  (4)  Locating  Engineers,  reporting  to  Division 
Engineers  or  to  Assistant  Engineers  as  directed.  (5)  Resident 
Engineers,  in  charge  of  the  construction  of  a  section  of  new 
road,  or  a  subdivision  of  some  work,  reporting  to  Assistant 
Engineers.  The  organization  of  the  Engineering  Department 
will  be  as  follows:  (1)  Chief  Engineer  reporting  to  the  Gen- 
eral Manager.  (2)  Division  Engineers,  having  charge  of  the 
engineering  work  upon  lines  in  operation,  reporting  to  the 
Chief  Engineer,  and  also  acting  as  Division  Engineers  of  the 
Construction  Department  upon  special  assignment  by  the 
Chief  Engineer  to  such  work.  (3)  Assistant  Engineers,  in 
charge  of  special  work,  reporting  to  Division  Engineers. 

The  duties  of  the  Engineering  Department  will  be  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  To  secure  and  maintain  records  of  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  railway,  including  roadbed,  track,  ballast, 

*These  rules  are  in  force  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

(565) 


566  APPENDIX  IL 

bridges,  culverts  and  other  structures.  The  records  should 
show  number  or  quantity,  location,  type,  dimensions,,  condi- 
tion, cost  and  date  of  construction,  in  all  necessary  details. 

2.  To  make  general  inspection  of  all  such  structures  annu- 
ally, and  such  other  examinations  in  special  cases  as  may  be 
necessary  at  all  times;  to  furnish  reports  on  their  condition, 
and  estimates  and  recommendations  covering  repairs,  renew- 
als and  replacements  in  the  manner  and  on  the  forms  pre- 
scribed. 

3.  To  prepare  and  maintain  correct  station  and  right  of 
way  plats,  standard  track  and  other  profiles,  standard  maps 
and  plans,  and  all  general  engineering  records. 

4.  To  supervise  and  direct  all  work  of  special  character,  as 
assigned  by  General  Manager  and  Chief  Engineer. 

5.  To  inspect  and  report  condition  of  all  ordinary  and  spe- 
cial work  to  insure  compliance  with  standard  plans  and  speci- 
fications. 

6.  To  prepare  plans,  specifications  and  estimates  for  all 
duly  authorized  work,  when  necessary,  to  prepare  forms  of 
proposal  and  contracts  for  such  work,  and  to  award  contracts 
when  approved  by  the  General  Manager. 

7.  To    furnish    all   necessary   stakes,    centers,    elevations, 
cross  sections  and  measurements  required  for  the  execution 
of  routine  or  special  work,  and  otherwise  to  aid  and  supple- 
ment the  Division  forces  to  the  best  advantage  of  the  railway 
company. 

Engineers  will  have  no  authority  over  roadmasters,  bridge 
foreman  or  any  regular  force  of  the  several  Division  Superin- 
tendents, except  as  it  may  be  conferred  upon  them  in  special 
cases  by  the  General  Manager,  General  Superintendent,  or 
Superintendent,  but  they  must  report  to  the  proper  official  any 
neglect  or  failure  to  execute  work  in  accordance  with  the  duly 
authorized  plans,  specifications  or  instructions  governing  such 
work. 

None  other  than  routine  work  will  be  undertaken  without 
formal  and  sufficient  authority,  confirmed  by  approved  Im- 
provement forms  (1363),  or  by  special  direction  of  the  General 
Manager,  General  Superintendent  or  Assistant  General  Super- 
intendent transmitted  through  the  Chief  Engineer  or  the 
Division  Engineers. 


APPENDIX  H.  567 

No  work  affecting  safety  or  regularity  of  trains  must  be 
undertaken  without  previously  notifying  the  Superintendent  of 
the  Division  upon  which  the  work  is  to  be  performed,  and 
the  subsequent  execution  of  the  work  must  conform  to  the 
orders,  rules  and  regulations  established,  by  the  Superinten- 
dent to  insure  safety. 

All  necessary  track  or  bridge  work  in  connection  with 
such  work  will  be  performed  by  the  division  force,  under  the 
instructions  of  the  Superintendent  or  his  roadmasters  or 
bridge  foremen. 

Salaries  and  wages  of  special  forces  employed  under  the 
direction  of  an  engineer,  unless  specially  excepted,  will  be 
carried  on  the  Superintendents'  rolls,  the  engineer  making 
time  returns  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  standard  rules 
in  force  on  the  Division. 

Before  the  beginning  of  each  season's  work  Assistant  Engi- 
neers will  be  furnished  with  a  list  of  the  various  improve- 
ments authorized.  The  limits  within  which  track  laying  and 
ballasting  are  to  be  prosecuted  should  be  ascertained  in  ad- 
vance and  levels  run  over  such  sections  and  profiles  sent  to 
the  Division  Engineer,  plotted  to  a  double  vertical  and  single 
horizontal  scale.  The  Division  Engineer  will  locate  the  proper 
ballast  grade  line  and  Assistant  Engineers  will  compute  quan- 
tities in  cubic  yards  of  material  required  for  bank  widening, 
raising  sags  and  ballast. 

At  the  close  of  each  season's  work  Assistant  Engineers 
will  furnish  a  detailed  report  of  the  various  improvements 
completed,  giving  full  notes  and  sketches  wherever  neces- 
sary. 

LOCATION.      (THEORY.) 

"Engineering  is  the  art  of  making  a  dollar  earn  the  most 
interest." 

A  railway  is  a  commercial  enterprise  and  is  constructed 
solely  for  profit. 

The  factors  affecting  profits  are:  1.  Gross  earnings.  2. 
Operating  expenses.  3.  Fixed  charges.  The  effect  on  such 
factors,  of  differences  of  route,  location,  details  and  construc- 
tion cost  must  be  determined  before  the  final  route  of  least 
cost  and  greatest  value  can  be  fixed. 


568  APPENDIX  H. 

The  combined  sum  of  operating  expenses  and  interest 
charges  is  least  when  interest  charges  on  additional  expendi- 
tures are  no  longer  saved  in  reduced  cost  of  operating  ex- 
penses, and  when  additional  operating  expenses  are  no  longer 
saved,  in  reduced  interest  charges.  Accordingly,  the  eco- 
nomic value  of  each  factor  affecting  the  cost  of  operating  must 
be  ascertained  and  carefully  compared  with  its  corresponding 
effect  on  construction  cost,  in  order  to  secure  the  most  eco- 
nomical ratio  between  operating  expenses  and  construction 
cost. 

The  principal  factors  affecting  cost  of  operation,  with  which 
the  Engineer  has  to  deal,  are:  Volume  of  traffic,  gradients, 
distance,  rise  and  fall,  curvature  and  maintenance  of  railway, 
for  which  economic  values  are  elsewhere  given  under  appro- 
priate heads. 

The  sums  which  may  be  profitably  expended  for  improving 
the  character  of  the  railway  location  and  construction  vary 
most  directly  with  the  number  of  trains  to  be  operated  over 
the  new  railway,  for  which  reason  the  "train  mile"  is  usually 
adopted  as  the  operating  unit.  The  commercial  effectiveness 
of  "operation"  is  reflected  in  the  average  cost  of  transporta- 
tion per  net  ton  mile,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  commer- 
cial unit. 

The  least  cost  of  transportation  is  secured  when  the  lowest 
train  mile  cost  is  combined  with  the  largest  net  tonnage  per 
train.  And  the  earning  power  of  the  invested  capital  is 
greatest  when  least  cost  and  greatest  net  tonnage  per  train 
are  combined  with  the  lowest  economic  capital  expenditure. 

Under  these  conditions  only  does  "a  dollar  earn  the  most 
interest." 

GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS. 

The  rules  governing  location  are  intended  for  use  in  the 
field,  and  it  is  expected  that  they  will  be  closely  followed. 
The  ability  of  the  engineer  will  be  determined  by  this 
standard. 

Before  any  new  road  is  located,  the  Chief  Engineer  will 
indicate  the  character  and  purpose  of  the  line,  and  will  give 
the  number  of  trains  for  which  the  line  is  to  be  located. 
After  the  completion  of  the  preliminary  surveys  he  will  also 


APPENDIX  H.  569 

determine  the  rates  and  proper  adjustments  of  the  ruling 
grades  and  the  maximum  degree  of  curvature  to  be  adopted. 
All  locations  must  be  approved  by  the  Chief  Engineer  before 
construction  is  begun. 

Each  railway  location  should  be  specially  considered  with 
reference  to  its  effect  upon  receipts,  operating  expenses,  and 
fixed  charges,  the  character  and  direction  of  the  expected 
traffic  and  the  class  and  number  of  trains  to  be  operated  over 
it.  The  selection  of  route,  adjustment  of  location  details  and 
character  of  construction  will  be  determined  in  accordance 
with  the  ascertained  conditions  of  lowest  operating  expense 
and  least  construction  cost  for  each  case. 

Locating  engineers  will  furnish  weekly  reports,  stating 
progress  and  giving  all  other  items  of  general  interest  pertain- 
ing to  their  work,  especially  information  concerning  present  or 
prospective  sources  of  traffic,  its  locality,  character  and 
amount. 

Strict  compliance  with  the  instructions  is  expected  concern- 
ing the  preparation  of  maps,  profiles,  records  and  estimates. 

Graphic  tables  for  computing  quantities  on  transverse  slopes 
for  use  in  preliminary  estimates  will  be  furnished  by  the  rail- 
way company. 

So  far  as  practicable,  all  maps,  profiles,  estimates  and  gen- 
eral records  will  be  completed  while  the  surveys  are  in  prog- 
ress, avoiding  all  unnecessary  accumulations  at  the  close  of 
the  work. 

Competent  engineers  will  avoid  much  unnecessary  loss  of 
time  and  money  by  making  preliminary  reconnoissances  in 
person,  using  pocket  compass,  hand  level  and  "aneroid"  when 
necessary.  When  there  are  several  alternate  routes  careful 
examination  will  usually  prove  it  unnecessary  to  make  instru- 
mental surveys  over  them  all. 

Rapid  exploration  lines,  especially  when  in  timber,  should 
be  run  with  compass  bearings;  in  many  cases  the  method 
of  stadia  readings  will  also  expedite  progress.  The  time- 
honored  custom  of  conducting  explorations  from  behind  the 
transit  should  be  changed  for  a  more  intelligent  method. 

The  reconnoissance  should  be  of  an  area  rather  than  of  a 
consecutive  line,  all  lines  or  combinations  of  lines  connecting 
controlling  points  being  studied  as  a  whole.  It  Bhould  be  the 


570  APPENDIX  H. 

effort  of  the  engineer  to  first  ascertain  the  position,  character 
and  limiting  effect  of  controlling  points,  natural  or  otherwise; 
afterwards  connecting  such  points  most  advantageously,  and 
finally  filling  in  intermediate  details  to  the  best  advantage. 

No  local  conditions  of  rocky  slopes,  swamps,  brush,  timber, 
etc.,  should  be  allowed  to  unduly  influence  the  Engineer  as 
to  their  real  effect  upon  the  total  estimate.  He  should  also 
remember  that  alternate  lines  will  be  compared  upon  the 
basis  of  completed  cost,  and  not  on  the  cost  to  subgrade  only, 
and  finally  that  it  is  not  the  object  of  location  to  secure  a  line 
of  uniform  low  cost,  but  of  least  total  cost.  It  is  a  common 
error  to  reject  routes  with  short  sections  of  heavy  construc- 
tion cost  in  favor  of  more  uniform  although  inferior  routes  of 
greater  total  cost. 

The  route  of  best  grades  and  alignment  should  alwaya 
be  first  projected,  working  back  to  the  final  and  most  econom- 
ical route.  Working  in  the  reverse  order  usually  results  in  in- 
ferior location. 

The  possibility  of  obtaining  a  very  good  line  should  not 
preclude  the  search  for  a  better  one;  the  greatest  and  most 
costly  location  errors  occur  most  frequently  in  prairie  regions. 

Valley  locations  are  usually  projected  from  "point  to  point" 
on  the  line  of  shortest  distance,  when  the  stream  is  unimpor- 
tant, otherwise  the  convex  angles  of  the  stream  on  one  side 
and  the  slopes  on  the  other  form  controlling  points,  if  not 
modified  by  the  additional  latitude  of  choice  afforded  by  the 
two  sides  of  the  stream,  or  any  combination  of  same. 

Bench,  plateau  or  prairie  locations  are  usually  projected  on 
routes  of  most  uniform  grade  and  direction  between  controlling 
points.  Commercial  centers,  stream  crossings  and  controlling 
elevations  form  the  principal  controlling  points. 

Mountain  locations  are  subject  to  greater  restrictions,  and 
are  usually  fixed  with  reference  to  the  position  and  height  of 
the  summit,  the  distribution  and  amount  of  rise  and  fall  to  be 
overcome  and  the  relation  between  the  adopted  gradients  and 
the  corresponding  length  and  cost  of  line. 

The  summit  is,  of  course,  the  principal  controlling  point; 
other  points  are  generally  accidental  or  artificial,  as  deter- 
mined by  local  topographical  conditions  and  the  rate  of  grade 
adopted  for  the  descent.  Such  lines  are  usually  located  de- 


APPENDIX  Jf.  571 

scending  from  the  summit  along  a  uniform  grade  contour  to 
an  intersection  with  the  "bottom"  line  of  lower  grades. 

All  locations  should  be  made  with  regard  to  future  perma- 
nent construction  and  every  effort  used  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  temporary  construction  which  may  be  required  to  the  least 
limits.  Many  opportunities  for  stream  diversion  are  neglected, 
even  in  cases  where  the  cost  of  the  bridging  otherwise  re- 
quired is  many  times  in  excess. 

When  construction  funds  are  limited,  adopt  lower  standards 
of  construction,  lay  temporary  gradients  and  use  short  sec- 
tions of  temporary  line  around  or  over  tunnels  and  sections  of 
heavy  work,  if  necessary  to  avoid  sacrificing  future  benefits 
arising  from  a  properly  located  route.  Such  lines  may  be 
economically  revised  at  some  future  time,  while  the  revision 
of  a  generally  faulty  "location"  might  involve  such  large  ex- 
penditure as  to  make  a  remedy  forever  impracticable. 

Exercise  extreme  care  in  fixing  the  locations  for  stations, 
water  tanks,  coaling  plants  and  crossings,  and  in  adjusting 
grades  for  same,  to  reduce  the  cost  and  disadvantages  of  train 
stops  to  the  minimum. 

Train  stops  on  or  near  the  foot  of  grades  should  always  be 
avoided  if  possible,  and  when  not  avoidable  for  any  reason, 
the  rate  of  grade  should  be  compensated  to  facilitate  the  start- 
ing of  trains. 

A  proper  reconnoissance  report  conveys  a  graphic  impres- 
sion of  the  features  of  the  region  and  route  traversed,  and  con- 
tains the  fundamental  elements  affecting  operation  and  con- 
struction cost.  The  engineer  should  separate  the  routes  re- 
ported upon  into  natural  divisions  of  similar  characteristics, 
giving  distances,  grades  and  controlling  points  of  each.  He 
should  describe,  classify  and  approximately  estimate  the  ma- 
terial to  be  moved  and  other  work  to  be  performed,  giving 
averages  per  mile  and  totals  for  each  section,  and  furnish  an 
approximate  estimate  of  the  cost  per  mile  and  total  cost  of  the 
completed  railway.  Small  scale  maps  and  profiles  showing 
general  features,  elevations  and  distribution  of  ruling  grades 
should  accompany  such  reports,  whenever  necessary. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  good  location  is  common  sense. 
VOLUME  OF  TRAFFIC. 

Fixed  charges  are  but  slightly,  or  not  at  all,  affected  by 
variations  in  volume  of  traffic,  "General"  operating  expenses 


572  APPENDIX  H. 

are  affected  only  by  considerable  changes  of  volume,  while  the 
more  direct  expenses  of  operation  vary  more  or  less  closely 
with  the  tonnage  or  passengers  transported. 

The  effect  on  cost  of  operation  of  the  number  of  trains 
operated  is  much  more  direct,  than  of  the  actual  number 
of  passengers  or  tons  transported,  hence  the  effect  on  the 
cost  per  train-mile  is  used  as  the  basis  for  all  economic 
comparisons,  and  the  actual  cost  per  train-mile  should  be  as- 
certained in  all  cases,  when  possible. 

Under  practical  conditions,  the  first  trains  operated  cost 
more,  and  additional  trains  cost  less  than  the  average  cost 
of  all. 

The  average  cost  per  train-mile  for  the  United  States  is 
probably  not  far  from  $1,  and  this  amount  may  be  used  for 
convenience,  when  more  exact  data  are  lacking. 

When  the  number  of  trains  is  affected  without  affecting  the 
total  cars  or  tonnage,  the  cost  per  train-mile  added  or  saved, 
may  be  assumed  at  60  cents,  in  default  of  more  exact  data. 

The  cost  of  assistant  engine  service,  extra  cost  of  heavier 
engines  and  of  all  other  items  affecting  the  cost  per  train- 
mile,  under  special  conditions,  must  be  added  or  subtracted 
from  the  train-mile  cost  first  assumed  (see  Ruling  Grades). 

If  better  estimates  of  cost  are  not  available,  estimate  assist- 
ant engines  at  $7,500  per  annum  (per  day  of  12  hours)  and 
heavier  engines  in  the  ratio  of  15  per  cent,  increase  of  cost 
per  train-mile  for  doubling  weights  on  driving  wheels.  The 
total  cost  of  assistant  engine  service  should  be  divided  by  the 
number  of  trains  served. 

Passenger  trains  are  but  little  affected  in  number  or  length 
by  some  classes  of  rise  and  fall  and  gradients  and  should  be 
excluded  in  all  such  cases. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison  capitalize  the  annual  cost  of 
train  expenses  at  6  per  cent. 

DISTANCE. 

Minor  changes  not  aggregating  over  two  miles,  in  an  engine 
stage,  do  not  usually  affect  train  wages,  nor  track  force;  train 
expenses  and  renewals  are  slightly  affected. 

The  capitalized  value  of  this  class  of  distance  per  daily 
train  per  annum  may  be  considered  as  25  cents  per  foot,  to 
which  should  be  added  its  construction  cost,  at  say  $3  per 
foot,  when  the  actual  cost  is  not  known. 


APPENDIX  H.  573 

Greater  changes,  but  not  adding  to  the  number  of  engine 
districts  usually  increase  both  train  wages  and  track  force. 
The  assumed  value  of  this  class  per  daily  train  per  annum 
is  60  cents  per  foot  ($3,168  per  mile).  The  actual  construc- 
tion cost  should  be  added  to  the  total  thus  obtained. 

Considerable  changes,  adding  to  the  number  of  engine  dis- 
tricts and  the  number  of  trains  operated,  should  be  valued  in 
accordance  with  the  ascertained  cost  of  similar  service  under 
similar  conditions,  but  otherwise  may  be  valued  on  the  basis 
of  $1  per  train-mile,  equivalent  to  $6.083  capitalized  value  per 
mile  of  distance  per  daily  train  per  annum,  adding  all  con- 
struction cost  of  railway  and  extra  equipment  to  the  amount 
obtained  by  multiplying  this  sum  by  the  actual  number  of 
daily  trains  (each  way). 

The  effect  of  distance  on  receipts  is  sometimes  most  seri- 
ous, and  a  still  further  sum  must  be  added  in  such  cases,  when 
the  effect  is  sufficiently  tangible. 

CURVATURE. 

The  cost  of  operating  curvature  varies  with  the  angular 
degrees  of  curvature  operated,  and  is  but  little  affected  by  the 
length  of  curve  radius. 

The  operating  value  of  curvature  per  degree  is  assumed  at 
$7  per  daily  train  per  annum,  but  to  this  should  be  added  the 
commercial  value  of  lost  time,  if  any,  and  also  all  extra  con- 
struction cost  of  rail-braces,  tie-plates,  spikes  and  guard  rails. 

Curves  exceeding  14  degrees  per  station  should  not  be  used 
without  due  necessity  and  usually  require  both  guard  and 
"hold-up"  rails  for  safety. 

A  maximum  curve,  unlike  a  maximum  grade,  is  not  limiting, 
and  does  not  justify  the  use  of  similar  curvature  elsewhere 
on  the  same  engine  district. 

All  curves  of  3  degrees  and  over  must  be  provided  with  ter- 
minal transition  curves,  changing  1  degree  with  each  chord  of 
50  feet.  On  mountain  lines  this  rate  of  transition  may  be 
doubled  if  necessary. 

Curves  less  than  300  feet  in  length  will  not  be  used. 

The  minimum  tangents  between  reversing  curves  must  not 
be  less  than  the  chord  length  of  the  transition  curves;  the 
minimum  tangents  between  curves  in  the  same  direction  must 
not  be  less  than  500  feet 


574  APPENDIX  H. 

Curvature  on  maximum  gradients  must  be  compensated  at  a 
rate  not  less  than  .04  feet  per  degree. 
Use  standard  rules  for  super-elevation  of  outer  rail. 

RISE  AND  FALL. 

The  effect  on  operation  of  minor  gradients  and  small  undula- 
tions, within  "velocity  limits"  is  very  small,  and  its  capital- 
ized value  is  assumed  at  $2  per  foot  per  daily  train  per  annum 
(one  way).  Limiting  curvature  and  train  stops  on  grades  of 
this  kind  will  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  operation,  and  should 
be  avoided  in  any  event. 

The  value  of  rise  and  fall  on  grades  of  considerable  rise 
exceeding  velocity  limits,  but  not  requiring  use  of  brakes  and 
sand,  is  $7  per  foot  per  daily  train. 

The  value  of  rise  and  fall  on  grades  requiring  the  use  of 
brakes  and  sand  is  $22  per  foot  per  daily  train,  and  $30  per  foot 
if  on  ruling  gradients. 

The  limiting  effect  on  train  weights,  of  long  sections  of 
more  or  less  continuous  rise,  may  considerably  exceed  that 
due  to  maximum  gradients.  This  effect  occurs  oftenest  on 
valley  lines  with  low  ruling  gradients. 

Train  weights  may  be  limited  either  by  ruling  gradients 
which  tax  adhesion,  or  by  time  requirements,  which  tax  the 
engine  boiler. 

The  product  of  speed  and  train  resistance  is  horse-power 
and  with  fixed  conditions  of  speed  and  engine  horse-power, 
the  train  resistance  is  also  fixed.  Hence,  the  train  weights 
over  the  division  may  be  fixed  by  the  average  scheduled  speed, 
and  the  engine  horse-power  at  limits  far  below  those  fixed 
by  ruling  gradients.  Under  such  conditions  the  average  and 
not  the  maximum  resistance  controls  the  train  weights. 

Compute  engine  horse-power  by  the  simple  formula. 

RxS 


375 

in  which  P  is  horse-power;  R,  resistance  of  total  train  in 
pounds;  S,  speed  in  miles  per  hour;  and  375  a  constant  factor. 
(See  Fig.  1  for  horse-power  of  typical  engines  in  use  on  the 
N.  P.  Ry,  in  1898). 


APPENDIX  H. 


575 


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APPENDIX  H,  577 

Vertical  curves  are  required  on  summits  at  all  grade  inter- 
sections not  less  than  50  feet  in  length  for  each  charge  of 
one-tenth  in  rate  of  grade. 

In  "sags"  the  rate  of  change  should  not  exceed  0.05  feet 
per  station.  In  theory,  the  rate  of  change  should  be  such  as 
to  maintain  equality  between  the  rolling  resistance  and  the 
"acceleration  of  gravity"  of  each  car  throughout  the  varying 
rates  of  speed. 

RULING  GRADES. 

Grades  which  limit  the  maximum  weights  and  length  of 
trains,  are  termed  "Ruling  Grades."  Maximum  grades,  which 
may  be  operated  by  heavier  engines,  or  by  assistant  engines, 
are  not  necessarily  ruling  grades. 

The  economic  value  of  changes  in  rates  of  grades  is  deter- 
mined by  the  relative  total  cost  and  number  of  trains,  required 
on  each  rate  of  grade  to  transport  the  same  number  of  cars 
and  tons.  The  practical  rule  is  as  follows:  Multiply  the  daily 
number  of  trains  saved  or  added  by  the  ascertained  cost  per 
train-mile,  by  the  length  of  the  division  in  miles,  and  by  the 
number  of  days  in  the  year,  the  result  will  be  the  annual 
saving  or  added  cost,  resulting  from  such  change  in  rate.  To 
obtain  the  capitalized  value,  divide  this  result  by  the  proper 
interest  rate. 

When  actual  values  are  not  known,  assume  the  rate  of  60 
cents  per  train-mile  (see  Volume  of  Traffic),  which  capitalized 
at  6  per  cent,  is  $3,650  (one  way  only). 

The  cost  of  operating  heavier  engines,  assistant  engines 
and  all  other  items  of  expense  added  or  saved,  should  be 
computed  in  addition  and  capitalized,  if  necessary  (see  Vol- 
ume of  Traffic). 

Every  effort  must  be  made  to  maintain  the  lowest  practicable 
and  economical  rate  of  grade  over  the  entire  engine  district. 

When  sections  of  high  grade  are  unavoidable,  it  is  fre- 
quently practicable  to  concentrate  such  "rise  and  fall"  into 
short  sections,  which  may  be  economically  operated  by  use  of 
assistant  engines. 

The  ruling  grade  of  each  engine  district  should  be  adjusted 
with  reference  to  those  of  the  adjoining  districts,  or  to  con- 
ditions of  local  traffic,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  unneces- 
sary "breaking  and  making  up"  of  trains.  When  not  practica- 
ble to  secure  this  by  grade  adjustment  alone  a  combined  ad- 

37    Vol.  13 


578 


APPENDIX  II. 


justment  of  grades  and  engine,  weights  will  effect  the  same 
end. 

The  ratio  of  rates  of  ruling  grades  to  each  other  at  points 
of  intersection  should  preferably  be  in  proportion  to  the 
tractive  powers  of  the  available  types  of  engines. 

On  sections  of  great  rise  and  fall  (mountain  crossings,  etc.) 
it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  engineer  to  produce  the  maximum 
and  minimum  ruling  grades  to  an  intersection,  if  possible,  and 
in  any  event  to  reduce  the  sections  of  different  rates  to  the 
least  number. 

Ruling  grades  may  be  of  different  rates,  but  equal  limiting 
effect,  when  adjusted  for  unbalanced  volume  of  traffic. 

Train  stops  on  maximum  grades  must  be  compensated  as 
fully  as  practicable,  and  not  less  than  3.5  feet  in  any  case. 
Compensation  is  not  only  provided  for  the  increase  in  starting 
friction  over  rolling  friction,  but  in  addition  to  permit  trains 
to  acquire  speed  more  rapidly.  Train  stops  near  the  foot  of 
a  long  grade  are  most  limiting  in  this  respect. 
VIRTUAL  GRADES. 

The  motion  of  a  train  represents  stored  energy,  derived 
from  the  engine  or  gravitation,  and,  under  appropriate  condi- 
tions, the  power  of  the  engine  may  be  in  part  absorbed  in 
imparting  speed  to  the  train,  or  augmented  by  the  surrendered 
momentum  of  the  train. 

When  rolling  and  grade  resistances  exceed  the  applied  force, 
motion  is  retarded  and  energy  released  in  definite  proportions, 
and  conversely,  when  applied  force  is  in  excess,  motion  is 
accelerated  and  energy  imparted  in  like  proportions. 

The  moving  energy  of  the  train  at  different  speeds  is  given 
in  Fig.  2  in  terms  of  "Velocity  Head,"  which  is  the  vertical 
height,  through  which  the  train  would  be  lifted,  at  each  degree 
of  speed  by  its  momentum  alone. 


I0001  1500'  2000' 

FIG.  2. 

DIAGRAM  SHOWING  LENGTHS  OF  VELOCITY  GRADES. 


APPENDIX  H. 


579 


Formula  for  Determining  the  Average  Virtual  Grade. 


T  1 

R 

W 


Sv  =-  average  virtual  grade  expressed  in  per  cent. 
T  =  mean  cylinder  tractive  power  in  IDS.  for  given  initial  and  terminal 


W  =  weight  of  train  in  tons  of  2,000  IDS.  ;  including  engine  and  tender. 
R  =  mean  train  resistance  in  Ibs.  per  ton  of  train. 

Note— The  maximum  virtual  grade  for  a  given  train-load  (W)  is  found  by 
inserting  in  above  formula  the  train  resistance  (R)and  the  cylinder  tractive 
power  (T)  for  minimum  speed  (10  miles  per  hour). 

Example:  In  above  diagram  is  shown  the  length  of  velocity  grades  for 
engine  Class  D  3  Mogul,  pulling  a  train  weighing  1,250  tons  (including  engine 
and  tender)  for  an  initial  speed  of  30  miles  and  a  terminal  speed  of  10  miles 
per  hour. 

The  difference  in  velocity  heads  (A  M)  taken  from  Table  of  Velocity  Heads 
=  31.95  — 3.55  =  28.4  feet. 

The  average  virtual  grade  (Sv)  is  calculated  from  formula: 


i     r   T         VI 

s*=— k-R]-^ 

T  ==•  11,743,  taken  from  table  of  mean  cyl 


=  7.3,  taken  from  table  of  mean  train  resistance. 


11,743 

7.3      =0.1047  per  cent 

1,250  J 

nder  tractive  power. 


The  length  of  velocity  grades  from  A  to  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  etc.,  is  found  by  con- 
struction, as  shown  in  the  above  diagram,  or  may  be  found  by  calculation 
from  the  formula 

d 
1  = ,  in  which  1  =  length  in  stations  of  100  ft.;  d  =  difference  in  ve- 

S-SV 

locity  heads  for  the  given  initial  and  terminal  speed;  S=  actual  grade  in  per 
cent. ,  and  Sv  =  virtual  grade,  as  found  from  formula  (1 ) .  The  maximum  vir- 
tual grade  of  the  above  example  is 

1         f  17,850  1 

=    | —    4.7  |     =  0.479  per  cent. 

20         L  1,250  J 


Table  of  Mean  Train  Resistance  in 
Pounds  per  Ton  for  Loaded  Cars. 


Initial. 
45 


(0 


Jpeed i 

Terminal. 

10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


R. 

10.6 


8.3 
7.3 


6.5 

5.8 


5.2 
4.7 


Table  of  Velocity  Heads. 

(Velocity  head  =  0.0355  v*.)  v  =» 
speed  in  miles  per  hour. 


Speed 
in  miles 

Velocity 
head 

Speed 
in  miles 

Velocity 
head 

pr  hr. 

In  ft. 

pr  hr. 

in  ft. 

10 

3.55 

28 

27.83 

11 

4.30 

29 

29.86 

12 

5.11 

30 

31.95 

13 

6.00 

31 

34.12 

14 

6.96 

32 

36.35 

15 

7.99 

33 

38.66 

16 

9.09 

34 

41.04 

17 

10.26 

35 

43.49 

18 

11.50 

36 

46.01 

19 

12.82 

37 

48.60 

20 

14.20 

38 

51.26 

21 

15.67 

39 

54.00 

22 

17.19 

40 

56.80 

23 

18.79 

41 

59.68 

24 

20.46 

42 

62.62 

25 

22.20 

43 

65.64 

26 

24.00 

44 

68.73 

27 

25.88 

45 

71.89 

580 


APPENDIX  II. 


The  engine  tractive  power  is  least  at  high  speed  and  short 
"cut  off,"  and  greatest  at  low  speed  and  "full  stroke,"  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1. 

The  mean  tractive  power  of  these  engines  from  different 
rates  of  speed  to  ton  miles  per  hour  is  given  by  the  table 
following  Fig.  1,  or  may  be  deduced  from  the  diagram. 

The  maximum  available  power  for  overcoming  rolling  and 
^rade  resistance  is  represented  by  the  product  of  the  train 
weight  and  its  velocity  head,  added  to  the  product  of  the  mean 
engine  tractive  power,  and  the  time  or  distance  over  which 
the  power  is  exerted,  illustrated,  in  short,  in  the  effect 
produced  by  "taking  a  run  at  the  hill." 


FIG.  3. 

DIAGRAM  OF  TRAIN  RESISTANCE  IN  POUNDS  PER  TON. 
(From  A.  M.  Wellington's  Railway  Location.) 


APPENDIX  H.  581 

Rolling  resistance  for  trains  at  all  speeds  is  given  by  Fig.  3, 
from  which  mean  resistances  between  different  rates  of  speed 
may  also  be  readily  computed. 

The  simplest  rule  for  computing  grade  resistance  i§  as  fol- 
lows: Resistance  (in  Ibs.  per  ton)  =  rate  of  grade  (in  feet) 
x  20. 

A  gradient  of  equivalent  resistance  to  the  force  exerted  by 
the  engine  is  the  "virtual  grade,"  or  real  resistance  taxing 
the  engine  cylinders.  The  virtual  grade  line  may  be  plotted 
with  the  assistance  of  Figs.  1,  2  and  3,  or  computed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  principles  before  given. 

"Momentum"  or  velocity  grades  may  be  used  with  due 
caution  to  avoid  increasing  rate  of  ruling  grades,  or  to  avoid 
large  construction  expenditures  otherwise  necessary.  In  all 
such  cases  train  stops,  grade  crossing  and  limiting  or  dan- 
gerous curvature  must  be  avoided. 

Velocity  grades  requiring  freight  train  speeds  in  excess 
of  30  miles  per  hour  must  not  be  used,  nor  should  such  grades 
be  laid  out  for  speeds  in  excess  of  that  obtainable  under  or- 
dinary working  conditions. 

MAINTENANCE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  LOCATION. 

The  cost  and  difficulty  of  maintaining  track  and  roadbed 
may  be  greatly  affected  by  the  general  characteristics  and 
local  details  of  the  selected  route,  and  all  such  conditions 
should  receive  careful  consideration  during  the  location  of  the 
route. 

The  greatest  differences  may  exist,  even  between  the  two 
sides  of  the  same  valley,  as  one  side  may  be  subject  to  con- 
tingencies of  drifting  snow,  slides,  cloudbursts,  stream  en- 
croachments or  "washouts,"  from  which  the  other  side  is 
wholly  free.  Conditions  of  greater  shade,  due  to  forest  or 
bluffs,  may  cause  longer  duration  of  snow,  frost  and  moisture, 
or  local  peculiarities  of  soil,  and  the  character  and  number 
of  lateral  streams  to  be  crossed  may  all  contribute  towards 
the  increased  cost  of  maintenance. 

Additions  to  cost  of  maintenance  arising  from  faulty  details 
of  "construction,"  may  not  be  properly  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  subject  of  "Location,"  unless  resulting  directly 


582  APPENDIX  H. 

or  indirectly  from  the  character  of  the  location,  such  as  un- 
necessary increase  in  number  and  length  of  bridges,  grade 
crossings  in  lieu  of  possible  under  or  overcrossings,  faulty 
arrangements  of  grades,  affecting  yard  and  station  expenses, 
and  other  items  of  like  character. 

All  additions  to  operating  expenses,  arising  from  such  causes 
should  be  included  in  equations  of  alternate  routes,  capital- 
izing same  if  necessary,  at  the  ruling  rate  of  interest. 


NOTE:— The  table  of  Velocity  Heads  and  the  economic  values  given  for 
"Distance,"  "Curvature"  and  "Rise  and  Fall"  are  derived  from  Welling- 
ton's "  Economic  Theory  of  Location,"  the  values  have  been  capitalized 
at  6  per  cent. 


APPENDIX  I. 

DETAILED     RULES     GOVERNING     SURVEYS     AND       CON- 
STRUCTION OF  RAILWAYS  AND  LISTS  OF  SUP- 
PLIES REQUIRED  IN  THE  FIELD.* 

SURVEYS  AND  CONSTRUCTION  SURVEYS. 

The  railway  company  will  furnish  instruments,  transporta- 
tion, camp  equipage  and  subsistence  while  parties  are  em- 
ployed in  the  field.  Each  individual  will  provide  himself 
with  all  personal  articles,  such  as  drawing  instruments,  cloth- 
ing, blankets,  etc. 

All  survey  lines  diverging  from  any  constructed  line  must 
be  connected  with  it  by  measurement,  so  that  the  initial  point 
can  be  located  upon  the  map  of  such  constructed  line. 

Stations  will  be  uniformly  100  feet  long  each,  and  num- 
bered consecutively.  It  is  not  necessary  to  set  stakes  at  each 
station  in  all  cases  on  preliminary  lines;  this  may  be  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  chief  of  the  party.  Mark  stakes  on 
alternate  lines  with  distinguishing  letter  A,  B,  C,  etc.  Mark 
stakes  on  located  lines  "L."  Mark  point  of  curvature  "P.  C." 
or  "P.  S.,"  point  of  tangency  "P.  T."  on  the  stakes  of  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  all  curves.  Mark  stakes  at  the  "P.  C."  or 
"P.  S."  with  the  degree  and  direction  of  the  curve. 

Ties  must  be  secured  to  all  township  and  subdivision  lines 
whenever  crossed.  Give  station  number  of  intersection,  angle 
of  intersection,  distance  along  the  line  to  the  nearest  corner 
or  quarter  corner.  Whenever  possible,  make  the  intersection 
by  running  through  between  the  two  corners. 

When  line  is  located  through  villages  or  towns,  take  neces- 
sary measurements,  tieing  the  center  line  to  the  plats,  and 
secure  tracings  of  the  town  plats  as  contained  in  the  county 


*These  rules  are  in  force  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 

(583) 


584  APPENDIX  I. 

registrar's  office,  with  all  dates  and  certificates  contained  in 
original,  and  send  these  copies  to  the  office  of  the  Chief 
Engineer. 

Tie  in  all  property  and  land  lines  and  locate  all  buildings 
that  are  near  the  line. 

Check  all  angles  by  needle  reading,  or  by  doubling  the  angle 
or  both.  Check  all  measurements  by  chain  or  tape.  Check 
chains  frequently  by  steel  tape  or  level  rod. 

Keep  all  instruments  in  proper  condition  and  good  adjust- 
ment. 

Always  establish  a  substantial  and  permanent  bench  at  the 
initial  point  of  all  surveys,  and  at  short  intervals  along  the 
line.  Use  the  sea  level  datum,  and  if  one  has  to  be  assumed, 
ascertain  its  relation  with  the  standard  datum  at  the  first 
opportunity,  and  correct  all  elevations  accordingly. 

All  level  notes  must  be  checked  at  the  end  of  each  day's 
work  by  adding  the  backsights  and  the  foresights,  and  ascer- 
taining the  difference. 

MAPS,  PROFILES  AND  RECORDS. 

Maps  of  located  lines,  made  in  the  field,  will  be  usually 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  800  feet;  in  broken  and  diffi- 
cult localities,  one  inch  to  400  feet.  General  maps  to  be  sent 
to  the  office  of  the  Chief  Engineer  may  be  drawn  to  a  scale 
of  one  inch  to  4,000  feet,  etc.  .The  maps  will  be  made  in  con- 
formity with  the  standard  specimen  sheets  furnished  from  the 
office  of  Chief  Engineer. 

Maps,  plans  and  profiles  are  to  be  drawn  with  the  top  of 
the  paper  to  northward  or  westward,  and  the  letters  and  fig- 
ures are  to  be  right  side  up  toward  the  top  or  toward  the  left 
hand  side  of  the  paper,  and  must  otherwise  conform  with  the 
specimen  profiles. 

Maps  and  profiles  should  give  names  of  all  rivers  and 
streams,  names  of  owners  or  occupants  of  houses,  ranches  or 
farms  passed  by  the  line,  etc.  Put  on  all  the  information  nec- 
essary to  enable  another  person  to  fully  identify  any  locality. 
Be  certain  to  note  on  profile  all  extreme  high  or  extreme 
low  watermarks,  wherever  found,  even  if  only  approximate. 
The  meridian  should  be  drawn  on  all  maps,  both  true  and 
magnetic,  when  both  are  known. 


APPENDIX  I.  585 

On  each  drawing  of  any  kind  put  name  of  engineer,  initial 
of  draftsman,  date,  place,  etc.  On  both  ends  of  the  outside 
of  the  paper,  give  the  title  in  full  of  the  map,  plan,  sketch  or 
profile. 

Tracings  of  maps  and  profiles  of  all  lines  run  must  be  sent 
to  the  office  of  the  Chief  Engineer,  distinctly  marked  with  the 
name  of  the  line,  streams,  and  all  other  information  necessary 
to  identify  the  locality. 

Tracings  of  located  lines  showing  government  and  property 
lines,  streams  and  date  of  commencing  and  completing  sur- 
vey, must  be  made  and  sent  promptly  to  the  office  of  the 
Chief  Engineer,  as  soon  as  each  section  of  twenty  miles  has 
been  finally  located,  for  the  purpose  of  filing  map  of  definite 
location  in  the  land  office. 

All  changes  of  line  made  after  the  map  of  definite  location 
has  been  filed  in  the  general  land  office  must  be  approved  by 
the  engineer  in  charge  before  being  adopted,  and  as  soon  as 
made,  reported  to  the  Chief  Engineer  with  a  tracing  of  new 
and  old  line,  and  tracing  profile  of  the  part  altered. 

Topography  on  general  maps  should  be  given  for  a  distance 
of  1,500  feet  on  each  side  of  the  center  line,  and  further  when 
necessary  to  show  important  features.  In  order  to  facilitate 
plotting  contour  topography,  the  notes  should  give  distances 
of  contours  from  the  center  line. 

All  courses  of  line  must  be  given  in  reference  to  the  true 
meridian,  and  for  that  purpose  an  observation  must  be  taken 
upon  starting  the  survey  and  the  true  course  recorded  in  the 
field  books,  as  the  work  progresses.  An  additional  observation 
should  be  taken  for  the  correction  of  meridianal  convergency 
whenever  the  extent  of  the  survey  shall  attain  a  departure  of 
one-half  degree  of  longitude. 

Curves  and  bearings  of  tangents  shall  be  noted  on  the  maps 
and  profiles  in  the  manner  shown  on  the  samples  furnished. 
When  practicable  give  true  bearings  instead  of  magnetic. 
State  which  is  given. 

To  avoid  cumulative  errors,  when  platting  lines,  all  angles 
must  be  laid  off  from  some  standard  bearing,  using  the  calcu- 
lated course  for  this  purpose.  This  can  be  done  best  by  laying 
off  any  convenient  bearing  in  the  general  direction  of  the  sur- 


586  APPENDIX  I. 

vey  and  transferring  all  angles  turned  from  this  line  by 
parallel  rules  or  triangles,  to  the  last  point  scaled.  This 
will,  on  located  lines,  require  all  tangents  to  be  calculated 
from  intersection  to  intersection. 

Indicate  on  the  map,  or  otherwise,  the  width  and  extent  of 
extra  right  of  way  necessary  for  stations,  side  tracks,  "Ys," 
borrowpits,  etc.,  on  the  line  of  the  road. 

Profiles,  when  completed,  shall  contain  all  the  information 
called  for  on  the  sample  copy  furnished  from  the  office  of 
Chief  Engineer,  and  arranged  in  the  manner  shown  thereon. 
The  original  profiles  must  be  made  oc  the  regular  profile 
paper.  Tracings  must  be  made  in  sections  of  twenty  miles 
from  the  original  profile,  and  sent  to  the  office  of  the  Division 
Engineer,  from  which  the  necessary  blue-prints  will  be  made 
for  contractors.  Intersecting  grades  are  to  be  connected  by 
vertical  curves,  having  a  rate  of  change  of  grade  per  station 
of  0.05  feet,  except  on  summit  curves  where  the  rate  of  change 
may  be  0.1  foot,  or  more  per  station. 

Profiles  should  show  alignment  drawn  in  red  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  paper.  The  direction  of  the  curve  is  shown  by 
drawing  the  radial  lines  to  an  intersection  on  their  proper 
side,  at  the  middle  of  the  curve. 

Progress  profiles  will  be  sent  each  month  to  the  Chief 
Engineer's  office,  properly  colored  to  show  all  work  done  to 
and  included  in  the  last  estimate,  on  the  part  of  the  road  in 
charge  of  the  engineer.  These  profiles  must  show  all  work 
done  during  the  preceding  month;  not  only  grading,  but  de- 
tails of  bridges  and  culverts  built,  with  their  exact  location; 
description  and  location  of  all  buildings,  or  structures  of  any 
kind,  wells  dug,  main  track,  sidings,  or  "Ys"  laid,  etc.  The 
depth  that  piles  are  driven  below  the  surface  of  the  ground 
should  be  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  showing  the  point  of 
lowest  pile  in  bent;  the  mud  sills  of  trestles  should  be  shown 
by  a  short  heavy  line,  and  on  steep  side  hills  the  elevation 
of  each  mud  sill  should  be  indicated  in  the  same  way.  Prints 
from  "Solar"  negatives  of  tracing  profiles  in  the  Chief  Engi- 
neer's office  will  be  furnished  for  progress  profiles.  The  com- 
pleted profiles  will  be  retained  in  the  office  of  the  Division 
Engineer  at  the  close  of  the  work. 


APPENDIX  I.  587 

The  standard  progress  colors  are  as  follows: 

January Chrome  yellow.      July Sepia. 

February Carmine.      August Emerald  green. 

March  Payne's  gray.       September Cobalt  blue. 

April Deep  chrome.       October Vermilion. 

May   Prussian  blue.      November Indian  red. 

June Burnt  Sienna.      December Sap  green. 

Track  profiles  must  be  prepared  in  all  cases  when  neces% 
sary  for  the  guidance  of  the  contractor,  showing,  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  alignment  notes  of  the  profile,  the  number 
and  length  of  rails  to  each  tangent,  the  number  of  long  and 
short  rails  in  each  curve,  and  the  ordinates  to  which  they  are 
to  be  curved. 

Field  books  must  indicate  each  day's  work,  giving  date. 
The  flyleaf  of  each  book  must  show  in  ink  the  name  of  the 
branch  or  division,  nature  of  survey,  kind  of  notes,  name  of 
engineer,  name  of  instrumentman,  or  topographer,  and  the 
terminal  points  contained  in  the  book.  See  that  all  sub- 
jects contained  therein  are  properly  indexed  and  that  all 
notes  of  adopted  or  abandoned  lines  are  properly  marked  as 
such.  Have  notes  so  plain  that  they  may  be  understood  by 
any  one. 

The  original  field  notes  should  be  sent  in  to  the  general 
office  when  the  survey  is  completed.  In  case  the  original 
notes  are  not  in  good  condition  have  them  copied  in  new 
book,  giving  a  revised  and  complete  record  of  alignment, 
levels,  topography,  right  of  way  notes  and  other  data  per- 
taining to  the  line. 

Diaries  will  be  furnished  to  engineers  and  instrumentmen 
on  construction.  Details  of  each  day's  work  must  be  entered, 
giving  dates  of  staking  out  work,  commencement  and  com- 
pletion of  work  on  excavation,  bridges  and  buildings;  rise 
and  fall  of  streams  and  other  data  of  future  value.  These 
diaries  must  be  returned  to  the  Assistant  Engineer  at  the 
close  of  the  work. 

RIGHT  OF  WAY. 

As  soon  as  the  construction  of  a  line  has  been  ordered 
the  Division  Engineer  will  issue  the  necessary  instructions 
for  securing  the  right  of  way,  which  will  be  uniformly  100 
feet  in  width,  except  where  additional  land  is  required  for 


588  APPENDIX  I. 

station  grounds,  borrowpits,  wide  slopes  or  other  purposes. 

The  right  of  way  should  be  secured  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
contracts  for  same  being  taken  and  forwarded  immediately 
to  Division  Engineer's  office,  where  deeds  and  vouchers  will 
be  made. 

The  right  of  way  agent  will  be  under  the  orders  of  the 
Division  Engineer,  but  will  consult  freely  with  the  Assist- 
ant Engineer  in  charge  of  the  line,  and  will  make  all  agree- 
ments as  to  fences,  cattle  guards,  road  crossings,  ditches,  etc., 
subject  to  his  approval. 

The  description  of  irregular  tracts  which  are  acquired  by 
the  company  will  be  by  metes  and  bounds,  obtained  by 
actual  survey.  The  description  of  right  of  way  through 
government  subdivisions  will  be  made  in  the  following  form: 

A  strip,  piece  or  parcel  of  land  100  feet  in  width,  situated 
in  the  northwest  quarter  of  the  northwest  quarter  of  section 
10,  in  township  2  north,  range  1  west  (S.  10,  T.  2  N.,  R.  1  W.), 
Madison  county,  Montana,  and  having  for  its  boundaries 
two  lines  that  are  parallel  with  and  equidistant  from  the 

center  line   of  the   railroad   of  the    Railway 

Company,  as  the  same  is  now  located  (and  constructed).  For 
a  more  particular  description,  reference  may  be  had  to  the 
plat  drawn  upon  and  made  a  part  of  this  deed. 

The  description  of  lots  in  platted  tracts  should  be  in  the 
fpllowing  form: 

Lot  seven  (7),  block  six  (6),  in  Smith's  addition  to  Helena, 
Lewis  and  Clarke  county,  Montana,  according  to  the  recorded 
plat  thereof. 

All  plats  drawn  upon  deeds  should  give  ties  to  the  gov- 
ernment survey  points  or  to  some  fixed  and  indestructible 
points,  so  that  the  land  can  be  located  from  the  description 
and  the  plat. 

As  soon  as  the  right  of  way  has  been  definitely  secured, 
plats  of  the  same  will  be  prepared  in  Division  Engineer's 
office,  conforming  to  standard  scale  and  plan  furnished  by 
Chief  Engineer,  to  whom  they  will  be  forwarded  when  com- 
pleted, accompanied  by  the  deeds. 

ESTIMATES. 

A  careful  estimate  must  be  made  showing  the  probable 
cost  of  every  located  line  and  of  every  structure  or  special 


APPENDIX  I.  589 

work  upon  which  a  report  is  ordered.  Great  precaution 
must  be  taken  to  include  everything  necessary  to  complete 
the  work  ready  for  operation  or  use.  This  applies  to  work 
to  be  done  by  both  the  Construction  and  Engineering  Depart- 
ments. 

In  case  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  estimate  before  the 
exact  quantities  are  determined,  it  must  be  replaced  by  an- 
other whenever  the  data  can  be  obtained. 

In  monthly  and  partial  estimates,  make  returns  of  grad- 
ing to  nearest  ten  yards,  and  masonry  to  nearest  five  yards. 

Monthly  statement  (form  106),  showing  expenditures  to 
date  and  comparison  with  the  preliminary  estimate,  will  be 
prepared  by  Assistant  Engineer  at  the  close  of  each  month 
and  sent  to  Division  Engineer,  who  will  note  and  forward  to 
the  Chief  Engineer. 

No  estimate  or  statement  of  quantities  will  be  given  to 
contractors  or  sub-contractors  not  bearing  the  certificate  of 
the  Assistant  Engineer. 

The  standard  record  book,  form  No.  62  of  the  Company, 
will  be  furnished  each  engineer  in  charge  of  a  residency. 
The  notes  are  to  be  written  in  ink,  when  final.  The  record 
should  contain  cross-section  notes,  and  all  other  data  per- 
taining to  calculation  of  quantities,  classification  in  detail, 
ground  and  grade  elevations,  alignment,  material  or  labor 
accounts;  and  the  data  for  every  item  embraced  in  the  final 
estimate.  A  summary  will  be  made  giving  the  final  estimate 
in  sections  of  one  mile,  conforming  to  the  mile-posts  of  the 
branch  or  division.  The  record  must  be  kept  up,  as  far  as 
possible,  while  work  is  in  progress,  and  must  be  turned  in 
to  the  Assistant  Engineer  at  the  close  of  the  work,  and  finally 
checked  in  the  oflBce  of  the  Division  Engineer. 

GENERAL. 

The  plans  and  work  of  the  company  are  its  private  prop- 
erty and  must  not  be  imparted  to  any  one.  Reports  must 
be  made  to  the  immediate  superior  of  the  engineer  or  em- 
ployee, and  to  no  one  else. 

The  rates  of  pay  of  all  employees  will  be  fixed  by  the 
Chief  Engineer,  and  no  change  of  rate  so  fixed  shall  be  made 
without  his  authority  first  obtained. 


590  APPENDIX  I. 

Damage,  destruction  or  loss  of  property  of  the  Company 
through  carelessness  or  wilfullness,  must  be  made  good  by 
the  individual  at  fault. 

Engineers  in  immediate  charge  of  parties  are  responsible 
for  all  Company  property  in  their  charge,  and  are  expected 
to  prevent  extravagance  and  waste  in  the  use  of  supplies 
of  all  kinds  furnished  by  the  Ccftnpany. 

Locating  and  resident  engineers  will  forward  a  weekly  re 
port  to  their  superior  officers,  reporting  progress  of  work  anu 
all  other  general  items  of  interest,  pertaining  to  the  work. 
This  will  be  accompanied  by  the  force  report. 

All  engineers  must  make  themselves  familiar  with  the 
conditions  of  the  contracts  and  specifications  for  work  under 
their  charge;  they  should  attend  to  any  reasonable  request 
of  contractors,  furnish  them  heights,  lines,  stakes,  plans, 
etc.,  whenever  necessary,  and  in  general  do  all  things  requisite 
to  enable  contractors  to  work  to  advantage  and  without 
delay. 

During  construction  each  line  will  be  divided  into  resi- 
dencies of  convenient  length,  as  directed  by  Division  Engi- 
neer, each  in  charge  of  a  Resident  Engineer,  and  provided 
with  such  assistants,  camp  equipage,  transportation  and 
other  outfit  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  nature  of  the  work  and  the  various  facilities  must  be 
carefully  considered  as  soon  as  the  construction  is  ordered, 
so  that  competitive  proposals  may  be  obtained  for  every- 
thing that  will  be  required. 

Each  Assistant  Engineer  in  charge  of  a  line  will  submit, 
for  approval  of  the  Division  Engineer,  a  list  of  all  buildings, 
sidings,  Ys,  etc.,  with  proposed  location  of  same,  required  on 
his  work.  The  Division  Engineer  should  submit  all  pro- 
posed plans  for  station  or  terminal  facilities  to  the  proper 
officials  of  the  Operating  Department  for  criticism,  and  their 
suggestions  must  receive  careful  consideration. 

The  arrangement  of  all  stations  and  terminals  and  the  ap- 
purtenant tracks,  the  location  of  water  tanks,  and  all  mat- 
ters having  a  bearing  upon  the  operation  of  any  line,  should 
also  be  submitted  for  criticism  before  construction. 

Engineers  must  prosecute  their  work  economically  and 
will  be  expected  to  work  to  the  estimates  closely. 


APPENDIX  I.  501 

All  structures  will  be  built  in  accordance  with  the  stan- 
dard plans  of  the  Company,  and  no  deviation  will  be  made 
from  same  except  by  authority  of  the  Chief  Engineer.  Stan- 
dard plans  will  be  furnished  from  Chief  Engineer's  office, 
and  at  the  close  of  each  piece  of  work  all  that  have  been  used 
on  same,  by  engineers  or  contractors,  will  be  returned  to 
Division  Engineer. 

The  usual  classification  of  grading  will  be  earth,  loose 
rock  and  solid  rock.  If  cemented  gravel  or  soft  rock  in 
place  or  other  distinctive  material  exists  in  considerable 
quantities,  the  fact  must  be  reported  to  the  Chief  Engineer 
in  order  that  it  may  have  a  proper  classification  assigned 
to  it. 

In  staking  out  grading,  have  number  of  station  marked 
on  face  of  center  stake,  and  cut  or  fill  on  its  back.  On 
slope  stakes  have  cut  or  fill  marked  on  the  face,  and  number 
of  station  on  the  back. 

Banks  must  be  made  full  and  regular.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  avoid  sags  between  stations.  The  roadbed  throughout 
must  conform  strictly  to  the  standard  plan. 

In  regions  swept  by  strong  winds,  where  the  snow-fall  is 
liable  to  be  great  and  drifting  to  occur,  all  structures  will 
be  put  on  that  side  of  the  track  opposite  the  prevailing 
winds.  Usually  this  will  be  the  southerly  side,  and  station 
buildings,  water  stations,  switch  stands  and  every  kind 
of  structure  that  can  cause  the  formation  of  drifts,  will  be 
put  on  that  side.  Sidings  and  spur  tracks  should  be  put  on 
the  same  side,  where  practicable. 

When  embankments  are  rip  rapped  to  protect  them  from 
action  of  water,  that  part  of  embankment  upon  which  the 
rip  rap  is  placed  should  generally  be  made  with  slope  not 
less  than  two  to  one.  If  the  embankment  has  been  finished 
at  a  steeper  slope,  the  rip  rap  should  usually  be  so  placed 
that  its  exterior  slope  shall  be  two  to  one. 

Surface  ditches  must  be  laid  out  with  great  care  to  pre- 
vent water  from  running  down  the  slope  of  cut,  or  against 
embankments,  or  being  carried  to  any  point  where  it  can 
act  injuriously  upon  any  part  of  the  work.  The  ditches 
should  be  made  of  ample  size;  not  less  than  one  foot  wide 


592  APPENDIX  I. 

at  the  bottom  in  any  case;  and  if  the  area  is  considerable 
from  which  water  may  accumulate,  they  should  be  made 
two  feet  wide  or  more  at  the  bottom.  Material  excavated  in 
their  construction  should  usually  be  thrown  on  the  side 
toward  the  cut.  In  few  matters  is  there  more  opportunity 
to  show  good  judgment  than  in  judiciously  disposing  of  sur- 
face water  about  cuts.  All  cuts  must  have  surface  ditches 
and  thorough  drainage. 

In  turning  streams  care  must  be  taken  to  make  embank- 
ments across  old  channels  strong  enough  to  resist  the  action 
of  currents.  In  such  cases  the  width  of  the  embankment 
should  usually  be  made  not  less  than  ten  (10)  feet  from  the 
center  line  on  the  side  against  which  the  current  will  act, 
with  slope  of  two  to  one.  In  cases  of  soft,  spongy,  or  sliding 
material,  this  width  should  be  increased  on  the  exposed 
side.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  less  costly  to  build 
an  embankment  with  excess  of  strength  at  first,  than  to 
have  it  washed  out  and  be  compelled  to  rebuild  it. 

In  turning  rapid,  turbulent  streams,  take  special  and  full 
precautions  to  prevent  the  new  embankments  from  being 
washed  away  while  building  before  they  are  high  and  strong 
enough  for  effectual  resistance. 

In  building  culverts  and  other  waterways  of  perishable  ma- 
terials, ample  allowance  in  size  must  be  made  for  reconstruc- 
ing  them  at  a  future  time  of  durable  materials.  Wherever 
practicable  iron  culvert  pipes  should  be  hauled  ahead  and 
placed  in  position  before  the  embankments  are  completed. 

Vitrified  tile  pipe  of  double  strength  will  be  used  under  road 
crossings. 

In  building  permanent  box  culverts  of  stone  or  brick,  the 
smallest  opening  to  be  allowed  is  nine  square  feet,  clear  of 
all  obstructions.  The  height  of  the  opening  of  a  culvert 
should  never  be  less  than  its  width.  The  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  the  foundations  of  all  culverts  and 
water  conduits. 

Stream  diversions,  even  when  of  considerable  magnitude, 
usually  prove  much  cheaper  in  first  cost  and  also  in  subse- 
quent maintenance  than  the  bridging  otherwise  required, 
particularly  when  the  excavated  material  is  used  in  embank- 
ments. 


APPENDIX  I.  593 

The  natural  "scour"  of  the  stream  may  sometimes  be  re- 
lied upon  to  widen  channel  excavations  of  small  original 
cross-section,  but  in  all  cases  due  precautions  must  be  taken 
to  insure  final  cross-sections  of  full  and  ample  proportions. 

Pile  and  trestle  bridges,  not  required  in  part  or  in  whole 
for  waterway,  are  too  frequently  constructed  in  order  to  save 
time  or  to  avoid  real  or  supposed  difficulties  in  forming  the 
embankments.  The  maintenance  cost  of  such  bridges  is 
many  times  in  excess  of  that  of  embankments  of  equal  first 
cost,  and  no  bridges  of  this  character  should  be  built  unless 
the  cost  of  the  embankments  otherwise  necessary  exceeds 
both  the  first  cost  of  such  bridges  and  the  subsequent  cost 
of  filling  same  by  train  or  otherwise. 

Thorough  drainage  is  a  maxim  to  be  impressed  on  the 
mind  and  practice  of  every  one  engaged  in  construction,  and 
engineers  must  beware  of  being  deceived  or  misled  in  so- 
called  "rainless  districts,"  for  experience  proves  that  some- 
times (perhaps  at  long  intervals),  most  destructive  and  un- 
controllable floods  occur  in  such  localities. 

Top  of  bridge  stringers  will  be  set  0.25  foot  above  regular 
profile  grade,  and  regular  grade  changed  about  100  feet  to 
meet  it.  This  will  apply  in  all  cases,  unless  otherwise 
ordered. 

In  the  construction  of  pile  and  trestle  bridges  a  competent 
inspector  should  be  retained,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  keep 
a  record  of  all  piles  driven.  The  inspector's  record  must  show 
length  of  piles,  depth  to  which  each  pile  is  driven,  sinking  in 
inches  by  the  last  three  blows  of  the  hammer,  weight  of 
hammer,  and  fall  in  feet  of  same,  and  amount  of  piles  cut  off. 

Engineers  should  endeavor  to  secure,  wherever  practicable, 
at  reasonable  expense,  undergrade  or  overhead  highway 
crosrings.  Bridges  and  culverts  can  frequently  be  utilized  at 
slight  expense  for  undergrade  crossings  for  stock  by  making 
necessary  openings  in  right  of  way  fence. 

Before  the  completion  of  the  work,  all  construction  material 
left  over  and  scattered  along  the  line  must  be  picked  up  and 
returned  to  the  material  yard.  Refuse  will  be  burned  or 
otherwise  disposed  of. 

38    Vol.  13 


594 


APPENDIX  I. 


SUPPLIES  FOR  14  MEN,  30  DAYS. 


400  Ibs.  Flour. 

50  Ibs.  Buckwheat  flour. 

40  Ibs.   Oatmeal. 

30  Ibs.  Cornmeal. 

150  Ibs.    Sugar. 

20  Ibs.  Salt. 

10  Ibs  Tapioca, 

10  Ibs.   Sago. 

10  Ibs.   Baking  Powder. 

2  Ibs.    Mustard. 

1  Ib.  Pepper,  ground. 

y2  lb.  Ginger,  ground. 

%  lb.    Cinnamon,    ground. 

14  lb.  Allspice,  ground. 

100  Ibs.  Ham. 

100  Ibs.   Bacon. 

25  Ibs.  Dried  beef. 

25  Ibs.  Codfish. 

400  Ibs.   Potatoes. 

1  case  Pears. 

1  case   Cherries. 

2  cases  Tomatoes. 
2  cases  Peaches. 

2  cases  Corn. 

1  case  Peas. 

1  case   Condensed   milk. 

50  Ibs.   Coffee. 

10  Ibs.  Tea. 

40  Ibs.  Lard. 

12  packages  Yeast  cakes. 


25  Ibs.   Cheese. 

50  Ibs.  Beans. 

25  Ibs.   Rice. 

10  Ibs.    Corn    starch. 

1  box   Macaroni. 
10  Ibs.   Barley. 

1  box  Soap. 

1  bottle    Lemon    extract. 

1  bottle  Vanila  extract. 
10  Ibs.   Currants. 

1  box    Raisins. 

5  gallons  Syrup. 

6  bottles    Pickles. 
20  Ibs.   Onions. 

1  gallon  Vinegar. 

6  bottles  Tomato   catsup. 

1  case  Corned  beef. 

3  Ibs.   Baking  soda. 
50  Ibs.    Evaporated    apples. 
50  Ibs.  Dried  peaches. 
50  Ibs.  Dried  prunes  or  plums 
%   lb.  Nutmegs. 

1  box  Soda  crackers. 
12  boxes    Matches. 

1  box  Candles. 

2  Ibs.  Lye. 

10  Ibs.  Sal  soda. 
60  Ibs.  Butter. 

8  bottles  Worcestershire  sauce. 

1  case  Coal   oil. 


Eggs,  fresh  meat  and  vegetables  as  required,  if  they  can 
be  obtained  from  the  farming  community. 

ENGINEER  EQUIPMENT  AND   STATIONERY    (FOR   ONE 
FIELD  PARTY). 

2  balls  Twine. 

2  yards  Red  flannel. 

2  yards  White  flannel. 

1  Sounding  rod,  3  joints,  8  ft. 
each. 

6  6-H  Pencils. 
12  4-H    Pencils. 
12  No.  2  Pencils. 
12  Timber  leads. 
100  Manila  envelopes,  large. 
100  Manila  envelopes,  small. 

6  Colored  pencils,  red  and  blue. 
12  Penholders. 

1  box  Assorted  pens. 
12  Crow   quill   pens. 

1  Slab  for  india  ink. 

2  Inkstands.     * 

1  Pocket   inkstand. 

2  Pads  letter  paper. 
2  Pads  notepaper. 

2  Pyramids  pins. 
6  Rubber  erasers. 
!  steel  eraser. 


1  Transit. 
1  Level. 

1  Chain,   10   extra    links,   1 

extra  handle. 
4  Flag  poles. 

2  Level  rods. 
1  Hand  level. 
1  Barometer. 

1  Pocket  compass. 
1  Clinometer. 
1  Protractor,   paper. 
48  Thumb  tacks. 
6  Camel   hair   brushes. 
1  Scale,    triangular,    decimal. 
1  Straight  edge,   36  ins.,   steel, 

nickel  plated. 
1  Drafting  board   and  trestles. 

1  Stationery    chest,    tray    and 

board. 

2  Hand   axes   and  extra   ban- 

dies. 

3  to  6  Axes  and  extra  handles. 
1  Hatcfcet. 


APPENDIX  I. 


595 


1  Water  keg,  2  gallons. 

2  Brush   hooks. 

2  50-ft.     Tapes     in     cases,     2 
without  cases. 

1  Bottle    mucilage. 

2  Bottles  India  ink. 
1  stick  India  ink. 

1  pint  Combined  writing  fluid, 
stone   bottle. 

1  small   bottle  Red  ink. 

2  doz.   Shipping  tags. 

2  doz.   Shipping  tags. 

5  Transit  books. 
10  Level  books. 

10  Typography  books. 

6  Scratch  blocks. 
12  Blotters. 

1  Time  check  book. 
1  doz.   Property  reports. 
1  block   Vouchers. 
12  papers   Tacks,    8   oz.,   tinned. 

3  quires   Wrapping   paper. 


3  quires  Foolscap. 

3  quires  Journal  paper. 

1  box  McGill's  paper  fasteners. 
50  sheets     Cross-section     paper, 
lOths. 

4  Triangles,    10,    8,    7,    and    5 

ins.,  30  and  60  degrees. 
30  yards     Drawing     paper,     24 

ins  wide. 
1  roll    Plate    A    profile    paper, 

divided. 

1  roll  Tracing  cloth,  30  ins. 
1  Stylus   book,    with   carbons. 
24   Time  returns. 
1    Book    of    receipts. 
1  Pad. 

1  Book    rules   and   regulations. 
1  Book  transportation  rules. 

1  box   Rubber   bands,    assorted. 

2  Tin    map    cases,    6x36   ins. 
2  Ibs.  Keil. 

2  quires  Legal  cap. 


In  the   case  of  extended   explorations   beyond   civilization 
necessary  supply  of  medicines  should  be  provided. 

CAMP   EQUIPMENT    (FOR   ONE   FIELD   PARTY). 

1  Flesh  fork. 

1  Biscuit    cutter. 
36  Teaspoons. 
36  Tablespoons. 
36  Knives. 
36  Forks. 

1  Carving  knife. 

1  Carving   fork. 

1  Tea  kettle. 

1  Tea  strainer. 
24  Coffee  cups. 

2  Candle  lanterns. 

3  Washbasins. 
2  Dippers. 

1  Lunch  basket. 

1  Dinner  table. 

2  Trestles  for  tables. 

1  Cook  table. 

2  Sibley  stoves,  sheet  iron. 

1  Cook  stove. 

3  pieces  pipe,  with  dampers. 
12  pieces  Pipe  without  dampers. 

2  iron  pots. 

1  Three-gallon    coffee   pot. 
1  Two-gallon  tea  pot. 
1  Large    frying    pan. 

1  Small  frying  pan. 

2  No.  28  Stew  kettles,  galvan- 

ized iron. 
24  Pint  cups. 
36  Plates. 

1  No.  24  Stew  kettles,  galvan- 
ized Iron. 
12  Pie    plates. 

4  Three-quart   Pans. 


4  Tents    and    flies,    14x14    or 

14x16. 

1  Grindstone. 

1  Monkey    wrench. 

1  Spade. 

1  Hand  saw. 

1  Cross-cut    saw. 

1  Alarm   clock. 

1  Two-gallon    keg. 

1  Washtub,    board    and 

boiler. 

1  bundle       Sail       twine 

and 

needles: 

1  Sail  palm. 

10  yards  Canvas. 

2  Three-cornered   files. 

1  Flat   file. 

10  yards   Toweling. 

1  Scrub  brush. 

1  Broom. 

3  Candlesticks. 

3  Stand    lamps    and    6 

chim- 

neys. 

2  Stewpans. 

1  Water  pail. 

2  Griddles. 

1  Coffee  mill. 

4  Drip  pans,  12x17. 

1  Five-gallon    dish    pan. 

1  Five-gallon  bread   pan 

4  Large  iron  spoons,  12 

'ins. 

1  Soup  ladle. 

1  Cake  turner. 

1  Steel. 

3  Butcher  knives. 

1  Chopping  bowl. 

596  APPENDIX  I. 


1  Chopping   knife.  4  Four-quart  pans. 

3  Pepperboxes.  4  Six-quart   Pans. 

1  Sieve.  18  pint  Pans. 

1  Steamer.  3  Tin  pot  covers. 

1  Colander.  2  Three-gallon   Galvanized   wa- 

2  Can  openers.  ter  pails. 

1  Meat  saw.  1  Two-gallon  Tin   water  pail. 

1  Potato  masher.  1  Pick  and  handle. 

1  Rolling  pin.  2  Mess   chests. 

1  Nutmeg   grater.  5  Ibs.  lOd.  Nails. 

1  Bread   board.  100  ft.   %-in.  Manila  rope. 
10  yards  Oil  cloth. 


APPENDIX  J. 

DETAILED  RULES  GOVERNING  CONSTRUCTION  OF  TRACK 

OF   RAILWAYS*    AND    VARIOUS    SPECIFICATIONS 

AND  TABLES,  GIVING  DETAILS  IN  REGARD  TO 

MATERIAL  USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

TRACK  AND  BALLAST. 

Preparation  of  Roadbed. — The  standard  width  of  single 
track  roadbed  at  sub-grade  is  14  feet  on  embankments,  20 
feet  in  earth  cuts  and  16  feet  in  rock  cuts  unless  otherwise 
ordered. 

All  narrow  banks  must  be  widened  to  the  standard  width 
from  centers,  as  established  by  the  engineer. 

Transition  curves  will  be  used  at  the  end  of  all  curves  of 
3  degrees  and  upwards.  The  rate  of  change  per  degree  of 
curvature  should  preferably  not  exceed  1  degree  for  each 
chord  of  50  feet  in  length,  except  on  mountain  grades,  where 
the  chord  may  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  length  of  25  feet, 
when  necessary. 

Short  sags  should  be  avoided,  and  in  all  cases  vertical 
curves  should  be  provided  at  grade  intersections,  for  which 
the  engineer  will  establish  line  anJ  grade  wherever  re- 
quired. 

The  roadbed  at  sub-grade  should  be  crowned  to  facilitate 
drainage  by  raising  the  center  4  to  6  inches  higher  than 
the  sides,  making  due  allowance  for  ballast  in  establishing 
final  grade  elevation. 

Ditches  in  cuts  should  be  taken  out  in  accordance  with 
the  standard  cross-section  as  follows:  In  earth,  3  feet,  wide 
at  sub-grade,  1  foot  deep,  with  side  slopes  1  to  1.  In  rock  1 
foot  wide  at  sub-grade,  1  foot  deep,  vertical  sides. 

Material  used  for  ballasting,  widening  banks  or  raising 
sags  should  be  procured  at  points  where  the  removal  of 


*  These  rules  are  in  force  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 
(597) 


598  APPENDIX  J. 

same  will  benefit  the  roadbed  by  widening  cuts,  reducing 
grades  or  ditching.  Engineers  will  give  this  subject  their 
special  attention. 

Ties. — The  number  of  ties  per  rail  will  necessarily  vary 
with  the  width  of  the  ties  furnished  and  will  usually  be  from 
fifteen  to  seventeen  ties  per  rail  length.  The  minimum  width 
between  ties  must  not  be  less  than  ten  inches.  On  construc- 
tion, ties  will  be  laid  two  feet  c.  to  c.,  or  2,640  ties  to  the 
mile. 

The  best  ties  will  be  selected  for  use  at  joints,  with  faces 
not  less  than  eight  inches  nor  more  than  ten  inches  wide, 
and  must  be  so  placed  that  the  outside  bolt  will  come  about 
the  center  of  ties;  the  maximum  spacing  between  ties  at 
joints  must  not  exceed  ten  inches. 

"Rail  cut"  ties  must  be  adzed  to  uniform  bearing,  old 
spike  holes  plugged,  and  joint  ties  properly  spaced  for  sus- 
pended joints,  after  the  new  rails  are  laid,  and  before  the 
ballast  is  distributed. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  standard  gauge,  three  lines  of  spikes 
must  be  drawn  if  old  steel  rails  are  replaced  by  rails  of  wider 
section. 

Distributing  Rails. — The  rails  may  be  distributed  either 
from  the  end  or  sides  of  train.  If  distributed  from  the  sides, 
both  ends  of  rail  must  be  dropped  simultaneously.  Skids 
will  invariably  be  used  whenever  necessary  to  unload  into 
piles.  In  all  cases  the  greatest  care  must  be  used  to  avoid  in- 
jury to  rails  by  dropping  them  on  hard  substances  or  uneven 
surfaces. 

Curving. — Rails  in  curves  of  over  2  degrees  must  be  sep- 
arately curved,  and  before  being  placed  in  track.  An  Emerson 
rail  bender  or  bender  of  similar  type  will  invariably  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  sledging  of  rails  is  positively  prohib- 
ited. 

Particular  care  must  be  given  to  insure  uniform  curvature 
of  the  rail  throughout  its  length,  in  accordance  with  the  fol- 
lowing table  of  middle  ordinates: 

Degs.     Ins.  Degs.     Ins.  Degs.  Ins.  Degs.  Ins. 

1  X  6          1ft  11  2ft  16  3M 

2  ^  11*  12  2ll  17  4 

H  8           1|  13  3ft  18  4& 

it  9          2^  14  3ft  19  4V, 

5           1ft  10          2%  15  3ya  20  4ft 

NOTE.— Ordinate  at  quarters  equals  three-quarters  of  middle  ordinates. 


APPENDIX  J.  599 

Placing  Rails  in  Track. — The  rails  must  be  laid  to  line  and 
gauge,  and  placed  in  track  consecutively,  throwing  out  both 
rails  from  the  old  track  ahead,  as  the  new  rails  are  laid  when 
the  track  is  relaid.  Split  points  will  be  used  for  closing 
track  for  passage  of  trains.  Accurate  expansion  cannot  be 
secured  if  long  stretches  of  rails  are  fastened  up  to  one  side  of 
track  and  subsequently  thrown  into  line,  and  this  method 
is  prohibited. 

The  track  will  be  laid  with  even  joints  on  tangents  and 
broken  joints  on  curves,  except  on  sections  of  frequent  curva- 
ture and  short  tangents  less  than  1,000  feet  in  length,  where 
broken  joints  will  be  maintained  throughout. 

To  pass  from  even  joints  on  tangents  to  broken  joints  on 
curves,  cut  and  use  a  rail  according  to  the  following  rule: 

Cut  rail  at  point  distant  from  center  of  rail  one-half  inch 
for  each  degree  of  central  angle  of  curve,  using  short  rail  on 
inner  side  of  curve.  For  consecutive  curves  with  short  inter- 
vening tangents,  obtain  the  separate  sums  of  right  and  left 
central  angles,  subtract  the  lesser  from  the  greater,  and  the 
difference  will  be  the  required  angle.  Use  short  rail  on  inner 
side  of  this  angle.  The  length  of  the  short  rail  must  not  be 
less  than  ten  feet. 

"Short  rails"  may  be  used  in  inside  line  of  rails  in  curves 
of  large  central  angle,  in  order  to  maintain  position  of  joints 
near  center  of  outer  rail,  and  in  such  cases  the  above  rule 
must  be  modified  correspondingly.  Notes  for  length  of  cut  or 
short  rails  will  be  furnished  in  advance  by  the  engineer. 

Track  centers  will  be  furnished  by  the  engineer  every  200 
feet  on  tangents,  every  50  feet  on  curves  and  every  25  feet 
on  easement  curves.  The  track  must  be  laid  to  conform 
accurately  to  the  line  established. 

To  insure  perfect  alignment  at  rail  ends,  the  rails  should 
be  brought  squarely  together,  the  splices  placed  and  care- 
fully bolted  before  spiking.  Perfect  alignment  at  rail  ends 
is  of  great  importance  in  order  to  prevent  excessive  flange 
wear. 

The  position  of  the  brand  on  the  rail  is  immaterial,  whether 
right  or  left,  inside  or  outside,  but  its  position  must  be  uni- 
form with  the  contiguous  rails,  and  the  brand  should  not  be 
alternated  on  the  same  line  of  rails. 


600  APPENDIX  J. 

When  relaying  track,  a  convenient  method  of  unloading 
rails  from  end  of  car  is  by  means  of  two  30-foot  lines,  equip- 
ped with  grab  hooks  on  each  end,  one  end  to  be  made  fast 
to  joints  and  the  other  end  to  slots  in  ends  of  rails,  using 
the  engine  for  moving  the  cars.  This  insures  proper  spacing, 
and  is  more  economical  than  unloading  from  the  sides.  Use 
roller  at  end  of  car  when  drawing  off  rail. 

Expansion. — Proper  allowance  must  be  made  for  expansion, 
according  to  temperature,  as  follows: 

Temp.  Ins.  Temp.  Ins. 

100°  0  40  A 

80°  A  20  M 

60s  *  0  ft 

Proper  expansion  must  be  secured  by  the  use  of  iron  shims, 
provided  in  accordance  with  the  above  specifications,  except 
where  track  is  laid  on  a  steep  grade,  when  sawed  wooden 
shims  of  proper  thickness  will  be  provided.  These  shims 
must  be  left  in  place  until  track  is  full  spiked,  bolted  and 
thoroughly  anchored. 

In  order  to  prevent  rails  from  "creeping,"  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  each  individual  rail  shall  be  so  thoroughly 
anchored  as  to  insure  freedom  from  contact  with  adjoining 
rails.  Creeping  cannot  be  prevented  if  a  number  of  consecu- 
tive rails  are  in  contact. 

Bolting. — The  Harvey  grip,  or  other  approved  form  of  bolt, 
should  be  used.  At  the  time  the  rail  is  laid,  two  bolts  should 
be  placed  in  each  splice,  and  tightened  sufficiently  to  hold 
rails  in  line.  The  remaining  bolts  should  then  be  placed  and 
tightened  as  soon  as  possible.  Nuts  should  be  tightened  a 
second  or  third  time  within  thirty  days  after  track  is  laid. 

Inspect  the  rails  before  angle  bars  are  tightened,  and^take 
out  kinks  or  bends  by  the  rail  bender.  The  nuts  must  be 
screwed  up  firmly  before  joints  are  spiked. 

Gauging. — The  standard  gauge  will  be  as  follows: 

On  tangents 4ft.  8V£  ins 

On  curves  of  1,  2  and  3° 4  "  8% 

On  curves  of  4,  5  and  6° 4  "  8% 

On  curves  of  7,  8  and  9° 4  "  P J 

On  curves  of  10,  11  and  12° 4  "  9 

On  curves  of  13,  14  and  15° 4  "  9^ 

The  extra  width  of  gauge  on  curves  should  be  uniformly 
decreased  or  tapered  off,  on  the  easement  curve,  from  point 
of  full  curve  to  point  of  tangent. 


APPENDIX  J.  601 

Joints  and  centers  should  be  gauged  first  and  the  track 
gauge  must  be  applied  at  as  many  points  as  may  be  necessary 
to  insure  perfect  and  uniform  gauge. 

Easement  curves  must  be  spiked  to  gauge  at  five  different 
points  within  each  rail  length,  and  all  track  must  be  accu- 
rately gauged  when  spiked. 

Suitable  track  gauges  for  use  on  tangents  and  curves, 
which  will  insure  the  retention  of  the  proper  gauge  during  the 
operation  of  spiking,  must  be  used.  All  track  gauges  must  be 
tested  by  the  engineer  or  roadmaster  at  the  beginning  of 
the  working  season,  and  the  date  of  inspection  recorded. 

Spiking. — Track  must  be  full  spiked,  with  inside  and  out- 
side spikes  driven  in  opposite  sides  of  the  tie.  Spikes  must 
be  set  half  their  own  width  from  edge  of  rail  and  driven  verti- 
cally to  a  full  bearing  on  foot  of  rail.  The  prevalent  practices 
of  driving  sloping  spikes,  or  of  giving  them  a  final  lateral 
blow  to  close  the  spikes  against  the  rail  will  not  be  permitted. 
So  far  as  possible  the  spikes  will  be  driven  in  the  best  wood 
in  the  tie,  which  is  usually  at  the  outer  edge,  and  must  not 
be  redriven  in  old  holes. 

Elevation. — The  elevation    (in  inches)   of  outer  rail  upon 
curves  will  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  following  table: 
TABLE  OF  ELEVATION  OF  OUTER  RAILS  ON  CURVES. 

De-   , '     Rate  of  speed  in  miles  per  hour. , 

gree       15.           20.           25.         30.  35.  40.  45.  50.  60. 

of     / Superelevation. 


curve    ins.        ins.         ins.       ins.        ins.         ins.         ins.         ins.        ins. 

1  H  K  A          A  \l  1A          1A          1%          2X 

2  A  H  11        1A         1%  2%          2U          3A          4* 

A       .tl       !*       !8       ?A  «_        «H        7A 

5  \ 

7       IA      iii      2»      4£      5K 

8  1A  2^  3A          4}J  W, 

9  IA  2X  31| 
10           1V4          2<* 

12  \\  3^ 

15  2&  3}|           6&        

18  *«  4JJ          

20  2J|  5M 

The  greatest  elevation  must  not  exceed  six  inches  unless 
otherwise  directed. 

The  elevation  of  outer  rail  on  curves  must  necessarily  be 
adapted  to  speed  and  other  locU  conditions  with  due  regard 
to  safety,  comfort  and  economy  of  track  maintenance,  for 
all  classes  of  trains. 


602  APPENDIX  J: 

The  elevation  on  mountain  grades  should  not  exceed  that 
required  for  25  miles  per  hour. 

The  elevation  of  outer  rail  must  not  be  continued  beyond 
the  tangent  point,  but  should  decrease  uniformly  along  the 
easement  curve  from  point  of  maximum  curvature  to  tangent 
point. 

To  ascertain  the  elevation  required  at  points  on  easement 
curves,  trackmen  are  required   to  use   a   cord  of  standard 
length,  the  middle  ordinate  of  which  will  be  equal  to  the 
proper  elevation,  as  follows: 
Speed.  Length  of  cord.      Speed.  Length  of  cord. 

20  miles  per  hour 31.74  ft.      40  miles  per  hour 63.48  ft. 

25  miles  per  hour 39.68  ft.      45  miles  per  hour 71.42  ft. 

30  miles  per  hour 47.61  ft.       60  miles  per  hour 79.35  ft. 

35  miles  per  hour. . .  .55.55  ft. 

This  method  is  applicable  to  all  curves,  and  aids  in  maintain- 
ing  true  alignment,  as  all  ordinates  should  be  equal  on  full 
centered  portions  of  curves,  and  ordinates  must  decrease  uni- 
formly on  easement  curves  from  full  elevation  to  zero  at  tan- 
gent point.  In  using  the  cord  to  ascertain  elevation,  it  should 
be  stretched  and  firmly  held  at  both  ends  against  the  inner 
face  of  rail  on  inside  of  curve.  The  middle  ordinate  will  then 
be  equal  to  the  required  elevation  and  can  be  measured  by  a 
foot  rule,  or  by  attaching  a  short  piece  of  graduated  tape  to 
the  cord  at  its  center. 

All  track  levels  must  be  tested  by  the  engineer  or  roadmas- 
ter  at  the  beginning  of  the  working  season,  and  the  date  of 
inspection  recorded.  Sluggish  bubble  tubes  should  be  re- 
placed. 

Tie-plates. — The  standard  form  of  tie-plate  will  be  used, 
with  the  standard  72-lb.  rail  section,  in  lieu  of  rail  braces. 

Tie-plates  will  be  used  whenever  necessary  to  prevent  tie 
cutting,  generally  on  curves  of  3  degrees  or  over,  depending 
upon  local  conditions.  The  widest  margin  must  invariably 
be  placed  on  the  outer  side  of  rail. 

On  tangents  and  light  curves,  but  two  spikes  will  be  used  in 
each  plate.  On  sharper  curves,  three  or  four  spikes  will  be 
used,  when  necessary.  In  cases  of  unusual  difficulty  in  main- 
taining gauge  on  mountain  grades  and  sharp  curves,  before 


APPENDIX  J.  603 

applying  tie-plates  the  ties  may  be  dapped  to  allow  a  sufficient 
inclination  to  the  rails  to  check  any  tendency  of  the  rails  to 
overturn,  or  to  spread,  observing  due  care  to  maintain  gauge. 

In  laying  these  plates,  the  line  side  of  the  tie  is  marked,  and 
the  plate  put  on,  the  other  plate  being  then  put  on  in  its 
proper  position  by  gauging  it  from  the  line  plate  with  a  gauge 
rod  having  lugs  to  fit  the  spike  holes.  The  plates  may  be 
forced  into  the  tie  by  a  hydraulic  press,  or  in  the  track  by 
striking  vertically  with  a  paver's  rammer,  or  with  a  short 
section  of  rail  provided  with  cross-bar  handles.  In  putting 
plates  on  before  the  rails  are  laid,  a  wooden  or  metal  block 
should  be  placed  on  the  plate  to  distribute  the  blow.  If 
put  on  after  rails  are  laid,  the  rail  may  be  lifted,  the  plate 
slipped  in,  an  iron  plate  placed  upon  each  projecting  end 
of  the  plate,  and  these  two  plates  struck  simultaneously  by 
two  strikers  with  spike  mauls;  or,  one  end  of  the  plate 
may  be  settled  into  the  tie,  and  the  free  end  then  driven  with 
a  sledge,  causing  the  flanges  to  plow  their  way  through  the 
wood  under  the  rail. 

Rail  Braces. — Rail  braces  will  be  used  when  necessary  with 
rail  sections  for  which  tie-plates  are  not  provided,  generally 
on  curves  of  4  degrees  and  upwards.  On  curves  of  less  de- 
gree, double  spiking  will  usually  be  sufficient.  The  braces 
should  always  be  placed  in  pairs  on  the  opposite  ends  of  the 
same  tie. 

Frogs  and  Switches. — Switches  must  be  put  in  track  in 
accordance  with  the  standard  plans.  When  temporary  sid- 
ings are  put  in,  the  main  line  rails  must  not  be  cut,  but  short 
closure  rails  must  be  provided  to  fill  the  space  between  frog 
and  the  adjacent  rail.  Double  spiked  short  rails  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose. 

Ballasting. — All  spikes  should  be  driven  down  before  ballast 
is  distributed.  Ballast  should  not  be  distributed  until  road- 
bed is  of  full  width  and  all  unsuitable  material  removed. 
When  material  is  unfit  for  use  as  ballast,  it  should  be  cleaned 
out  from  bottom  of  tie  and  used  for  widening  the  banks. 
Where  there  is  trouble  in  heaving,  or  wet  spots,  the  material 
should  be  taken  out  to  such  depth  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
insure  perfect  drainage.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  wasting 
ballast  down  the  sides  of  slopes,  or  otherwise. 


604  APPENDIX  J. 

The  depth  of  ballast  will  be  determined  in  accordance  with 
the  local  conditions,  and  the  character  and  amount  of  ballast 
already  in  place,  if  any.  In  general,  not  less  than  8  inches  of 
good  material  will  be  required  under  ties. 

Tamping. — Tamp  the  entire  length  of  ties  on  new  track. 
Special  pains  should  be  taken  to  insure  thorough  tamping 
from  end  of  tie  to  1  foot  inside  of  rail.  On  old  track  the 
center  should  be  filled  and  lightly  tamped. 

Tamp  joint  and  second  ties  thoroughly.  Thorough  tamping 
of  the  second  tie  from  joints  is  of  equal  importance  with  that 
required  by  the  joint  ties,  and  will  prevent  the  formation  of 
cracks  starting  from  upper  edge  of  splices  by  reducing  the  up- 
ward deflection  of  joints  when  a  wheel  is  over  the  second  tie. 

Material  for  filling  and  ballasting  must  not  be  taken  from 
slopes  of  embankments.  When  ballasting  is  completed  the 
track  must  be  in  perfect  line,  surface  and  gauge,  in  accordance 
with  the  stakes  furnished  by  the  engineer. 

Ballast  Cross-Section. — Rock  ballast  should  be  filled  in 
level  with  top  of  tie  from  center  to  2  feet  outside  of  rail,  slopes 
1  to  1. 

Gravel  ballast  must  be  finished  to  the  standard  cross-sec- 
tion, which  is  as  follows: 

At  the  center  and  for  1  foot  on  each  side  thereof,  the  top  of 
ballast  will  be  even  with  the  top  of  ties,  and  thence  carried  out 
with  a  straight  uniform  slope,  passing  4  inches  above  bottom 
of  ties  at  ends,  to  a  point  2y2  feet  outside  of  rail,  thence  to  an 
intersection  with  the  roadbed,  with  slopes  of  IVz  to  1. 

If  material  is  used  which  is  more  or  less  impervious  to 
water  the  slopes  should  be  carried  to  an  intersection  with 
roadbed  on  a  line  with  bottom  of  ties  at  ends. 

The  practice  of  crowning  the  ballast  above  top  of  tie  at  cen- 
ter causes  dusty  track  and  rots  the  tie  at  the  center,  and  is 
not  permitted,  except  when  absolutely  required  for  drainage 
on  account  of  the  character  of  material  used  for  ballasting. 

Supervision. — The  engineer  will  furnish  all  necessary  eleva- 
tions, stakes  and  notes,  and  will  make  frequent  inspections 
during  the  progress  of  track  laying,  in  order  to  insure  com- 
pliance with  the  specifications,  promptly  reporting  defects  to 
the  roadmasters  and  superintendents. 


APPENDIX  J.  605 

SPECIFICATIONS      FOR      STANDARD      ROADBED      AND 
TRACK.* 

1.  Roadbed. — The  surface  of  the  roadbed  should  be  graded 
to  a  regular  and  uniform  sub-grade,  sloping  gradually  from 
the  center  towards  the  ditches. 

2.  Ballast. — There  shall  be  a  uniform  depth  of  six  (6)   to 
twelve   (12)   inches  of  well  broken  stone,  or  gravel,  cleaned 
from  dust,  by  passing  over  a  screen  of  one-quarter-inch  mesh, 
spread  over  the  roadbed  and  surfaced  to  a  true  grade,  upon 
which  the  ties  are  to  be  laid.    After  the  ties  and  rails  have 
been  properly  laid  and  surfaced,  the  ballast  must  be  filled  up 
as  shown  on  standard  plan;  and  also  between  the  main  tracks 
and  sidings  where  stone  ballast  is  used.    All  stone  ballast  to 
be  of  uniform  size,  the  stone  used  must  be  of  an  approved 
quality,  broken  uniformly,  not  larger  than  a  cube  that  will 
pass  through  a  two  and  one-half  (2^)  inch  ring.    On  embank- 
ments that  are  not  well  settled,  the  surface  of  the  roadbed 
shall  be  brought  up  with  cinder,  gravel  or  some  other  suita- 
ble material. 

3.  Cross-ties. — The  ties  are  to  be  regularly  placed  upon  the 
ballast.     They  must  be  properly  and  evenly  placed,  with  ten 
(10)   inches  between  the  edges  of  bearing  surface  at  joints, 
with  intermediate  ties  evenly  spaced;  and  the  ends  on  the  out- 
side on  double  track,  and  on  the  right-hand  side  going  north 
or  west  on  single  track,  lined  up  parallel  with  the  rails.     The 
ties  must  not  be  notched  under  any  circumstances;  but,  should 
they  be  twisted,  they  must  be  made  true  with  the  adze,  that 
the  rails  may  have  an  even  bearing  over  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  tie.     For  all  tracks  on  main  line  and  branch  roads  the 
rules  governing  the  use  of  cross-ties  shall  be  as  follows: 

a.  First-class  cross-ties  shall  be  used  in  tracks  where  pas- 
senger and  freight  trains  run  at  full  speed. 

b.  For  tracks  where  the  trains  run  at  slow  speed  new  sec- 
ond-class ties  shall  be  used.     For  all  tracks  in  yards,  or  tem- 
porary tracks  laid  for  construction  purposes   or  otherwise, 
second-class  and  cull  ties,  or  good  second-hand  ties  taken  out 
of  main  track  shall  be  used. 


'Used  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company. 


606  APPENDIX  J. 

c.  On  all  running  tracks  where  the  weight  of  rail  is  sev- 
enty pounds  per  yard  and  over,  fourteen  ties  shall  be  used  to 
each  thirty  feet  of  track,  and  for  all  tracks  in  yards  and  for 
temporary  use,  not  more  than  twelve  ties  shall  be  used  for 
each  thirty  feet  of  track. 

d.  In  removing  cross-ties  from  the  main  tracks,  they  shall 
be  taken  out  only  as  they  become  unfitted  for  service,  In  the 
manner  generally  known  as  "spotting  ties,"  and  not  by  entire 
renewals  in  continuous   sections,  and   Sub-division  Foremen 
will  be  held  responsible  for  the  proper  observance  of  this 
rule.     It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Supervisor  or  his  Assistant 
to  walk  over  the  track  with  the  Foreman  and  personally  in- 
spect the  ties  to  be  renewed  before  he  authorizes  the  same  to 
be  taken  out  and  replaced  with  new  ones. 

4.  Line  and  Surface. — The  track  shall  be  laid  in  true  line 
and  surface;  the  rails  are  to  be  laid  and  spiked  after  the  ties 
have  been  bedded  in  the  ballast;  and  on  curves,   the  proper 
elevation  must  be  given  to  the  outer  rail  and  carried  uniformly 
around  the  curve.     This  elevation  should  be  commenced  from 
fifty  (50)  to  three  hundred   (300)  feet  back  of  the  point  of 
curvature,  depending  on  the  degree  of  kthe  curve  and  speed 
of  trains,  and  increased  uniformly  to  the  latter  point,  where 
the  full  elevation  is  attained.    The  same  method  should  be 
adopted  in  leaving  the  curve. 

5.  Joints. — The  joints  of  the  rails  shall  be  exactly  midway 
between  the  joint  ties,  and  the  joint  on  one  line  of  rail  must  be 
opposite  the  center  of  the  rail  on  the  other  line  of  the  same 
track.    A  Fahrenheit  thermometer  should  be  used  when  lay- 
ing rails,  and  care  taken  to  arrange  the  openings  between  rails 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  following  temperatures  and  dis- 
tances:    At  a  temperature  of  zero    (0°),  a  distance  of  five 
sixteenths  (5-16)  of  an  inch;  at  fifty  degrees  (50°),  five  thirty- 
seconds  (5-32)  of  an  inch;  and  in  extreme  summer  heat,  of 
say  one  hundred  degrees  (100°)  and  over,  one  sixteenth  (1-16) 
of  an  inch  must  be  left  between  the  ends  of  the  rails  of  thirty 
feet  in  length  to  allow  for  expansion.    The  splices  must  be 
properly  put  on  with  the  full  number  of  bolts,  nuts  and  nut- 
locks,  and  the  nuts  placed  on  inside  of  rails,  except  on  rails  of 
sixty  pounds  per  yard  and  under,  where  they  shall  be  placed 


APPENDIX  J.  607 

on  the  outside,  and  screwed  up  tight.  The  rails  must  be 
spiked  both  on  the  inside  and  outside  at  each  tie,  on  straight 
lines  as  well  as  on  curves,  and  the  spikes  driven  in  such  posi- 
tion as  to  keep  the  ties  at  right  angles  to  the  rails. 

6.  Gauge. — The  gauge  of  the  track  shall  be  four  feet  eight 
and  one-half  inches  at  all  points,  excepting  on  curves  of  four 
(4)  degrees  and  over,  or  on  heavy  grades  against  the  traffic, 
or  on  tracks  used  exclusively  for  freight  trains,  where  the 
gauge  shall  be  four  feet  nine  inches.     The  standard  distance 
between  gauge  lines  of  the  guard  rail  and  the  wing  rail  of 
frogs  shall  be  four  feet  five  inches  in  all  cases. 

7.  Switches. — The  switches  and  frogs  should  be  kept  well 
lined  up  and  in  good  surface.     Switch  signals  must  be  kept 
bright  and  in  good  order,  and  the  distance  signal  and  facing 
point  lock  used  for  all  switches  where  trains  run  against  the 
points,  except  on  single-track  branch  roads. 

8.  Sidings. — All  company  sidings  shall  be  kept  in  as  good 
order  as  practicable,  using  for  this  purpose  second-class  rails 
and  ties,  or  the  partly-worn  materials  taken  from  main  tracks. 
Owners  of  private   sidings  must  be  required  to  keep  their 
sidings   in   safe   condition   for   use   at   all   times.     Throw-off 
points  must  be  used  to  prevent  cars  on  siding  being  run  or 
blown  out  on  main  tracks.     For  spur  sidings  the  end  should 
be  curved  away  from  the  main  tracks. 

9.  Ditches. — The    cross-section    of    ditches    at   the   highest 
point  must  be  of  the  width  and  depth  as  shown  on  the  stand- 
ard drawing,  and  graded  parallel  with  the  track,  so  as  to  pass 
water  freely  during  heavy  rains  and  thoroughly  drain  the 
ballast  and  roadbed.     The  line  of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch 
must  be  made  parallel  with  the  rails,  and  well  and  neatly  de- 
fined, at  the  standard  distance  from  the  outside  rail.    All  nec- 
essary   cross-drains   must    be   put   in    at   proper    intervals. 
Earth  taken  from  ditches  or  elsewhere  must  not  be  left  at  or 
near  the  ends  of  the  ties,  thrown  up  on  the  slopes  of  cuts,  nor 
on  the  ballast,  but  must  be  deposited  over  the  sides  of  embank- 
ments.   Berme  ditches  shall  be  provided  to  protect  the  slopes 
of  cuts,   where  necessary.     The  channels  of  streams  for   a 
considerable  distance  above  the  road  should  be  examined,  and 
brush,  drift  and  other  obstructions   removed.    Ditches,  cul- 


608  '  APPENDIX  J. 

verts  and  box  drains  should  be  cleared  of  all  obstructions,  and 
the  outlets  and  inlets  of  the  same  kept  open  to  allow  a  free 
flow  of  water  at  all  times. 

10.  Road  Crossings. — The  road-crossing  planks  shall  be  se- 
curely spiked;  the  planking  on  inside  of  rails  should  be  three- 
quarters  (%)  of  an  inch,  and  on  outside  of  rails  it  should  be 
one-eighth  (%)  of  an  inch,  below  the  top  of  rail,  and  two  and 
one-half  inches  from  the  gauge  line.     The  ends  and  inside 
edges  of  planks  should  be  beveled  off  as  shown  on  standard 
plan. 

11.  Policing. — Station  platforms,  fences  and  grounds  at  sta- 
tions shall  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  order,  and  the  telegraph 
poles,  mile  posts,  whistle  boards,   bridge   boards  and  other 
standard  signs  kept  in  proper  position,  and  trees  near  the  tele- 
graph line  should  be  kept  trimmed  to  prevent  the  branches 
touching  the  wires  during  high  winds.     All  old  material,  such 
as  old  ties,  rails,  splices,  car  material,  etc.,  shall  be  gathered 
up  at  least  once  a  week  and  neatly  piled  at  proper  points. 
Briers  and  undergrowth  on  the  right  of  way  must  be  kept  cut 
close  to  the  ground. 

12..  Use  of  materials. — Proper  judgment  and  caution  must  be 
exercised  by  Assistant  Engineers,  Supervisors  and  Foremen 
against  extravagant  use  of  materials,  as  they  will  be  held 
strictly  responsible  for  the  same,  and  for  any  deviation  from 
these  specifications. 

SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  CROSS-TIES.* 

No.  1  Pole  Ties  must  be  well  and  smoothly  hewed  or  sawed 
out  of  sound,  straight,  thrifty  timber;  must  be  eight  feet 
long,  with  sawed  ends,  and  uniformly  six  inches  thick  between 
faces;  each  face  side  to  be  eight  inches  wide,  or  wider,  at  the 
narrowest  place  inside  the  bark,  and  the  faces  to  be  straight, 
truly  lined  and  parallel  with  each  other.  Ties  sawed  six 
inches  by  ten  inches  wide,  or  wider,  and  free  from  wane, 
shakes  or  unsoundness  of  any  kind  will  be  accepted  as  No.  1. 

No.  2  ties  must  be  the  same  as  No.  1,  except  that  each  face 
side  of  hewed  or  sawed  pole  ties  may  be  not  less  than  six 


*Used  by  the  Chicago  &  Northwestern  Railway  Co. 


APPENDIX  J. 


609 


inches,  and  of  manufactured  split  ties,  and  of  sawed  ties  not 
less  than  eight  inches.  No.  1  and  No.  2  ties  must  be  piled 
separately.  Inspections  monthly. 

All  Ties  to  be  delivered  on  ground  at  or  above  the  grade  of 
railway  track,  within  thirty  feet  of  same,  subject  to  the  in- 
spection and  count  of  the  Purchasing  Agent,  or  any  authorized 
Agent  of  the  Company,  whose  action  in  counting  and  receiv- 
ing or  rejecting  the  ties  offered  shall  be  final  and  conclusive. 


TABLE  AND  FIGURE   giving  dimensions  of  rails  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Engineer's  Standard; 


FIG.  379. 

RAIL  SECTION. 


39    Vol.  13 


610 


APPENDIX  J. 


100 
Ibs. 
per 
yd. 

90 
Ibs. 
per 

yd. 

80 
Ibs. 
per 

yd. 

75 

Ibs. 
per 

yd. 

70 
Ibs. 
per 
yd. 

65 

Ibs. 
per 

yd. 

60 
Ibs. 
per 

yd. 

55 
Ibs. 
per 

yd. 

Percentage  of  Metal: 
In  the  Head               

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

In  the  W^eb 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

21 

In  the  Flange  .  ,  

37 

87 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

37 

Base,             inches  -  

5% 

5% 

5 

4JI 

4% 

4/H 

414 

4iB 

Height                "    

5% 

6% 

5 

418 

4% 

4A 

4^ 

4iV 

RadofWeb,       "    

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

"      Head       "    .     . 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

Angle  A,  Degrees  

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

Angle  B,        "         

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

13 

Dimension  C  inches 

2% 

%% 

2l/i 

2ig 

37 

21? 

2% 

2U 

"        D         ' 

1« 

U| 

i?i 

|i| 

1A 

1/2 

lii 

E,       •        

3A 

m 

2% 

225 

2W 

2% 

2J| 

2^1 

F,        '       „  

Q        ' 

8I 

3? 

JL 

% 

JL 

!l 

§§ 

H 

f 

H, 
I        ' 

i 

£ 

H 

d 

s 

A 

a 

5 

% 

H 

y 

ji 

y 

M 

H 

'        K         ' 

9 

g 

3| 

ij 

33 

05 

3J 

Ig 

L,        •        

JL 

1 

JL 

K 

JL 

JL 

TU 

JL 

FIG.  380. 

PENNSYLVANIA  R.  R.  STANDARD  RAIL  SECTION. 

100  pounds  per  yard  and  standard  joint. 
2  bars,  34  inches  long,  78.7  Ibs.  0  bolts,  %  x  4tf  inches,  7.5  Ibs 


APPENDIX  J. 


611 


NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  &  HUDSON  RIVER  R.  R.  STANDARD  RAIL, 
SECTION. 

Weight  80  pounds  per  yard. 

Type  P.  H.  Dudley  section  for  rails,  having  fillets  of  large  radius  and  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  web  is  above  the  center  line. 


612 


APPENDIX  7. 


FIG.  382. 

PHILADELPHIA  &  READING  R.  R.  RAIL  SECTION. 

79  pounds  per  yard. 

Type  of  R.  H.  Sayre  section  for  rails,  with  top  corners  of  large  radius  and 
sides  sloping  outward  from  the  top. 


APPENDIX  J. 


613 


FIG.  383. 


ARGENTINE  GREAT  WESTERN  R'Y,  SOUTH  AMERICA 
STANDARD  SECTION. 

70  pounds  per  yard. 
Type  of  Mr.  Sandberg's  section  for  rails,  having  wide  heads  with  large  corners. 


r 

or  THE 


UNIVERSITY 


APPENDIX  J. 


-« 


FIG.  384. 


MEXICAN  RAILWAY  CO.,  LIMITED,  STANDARD  RAIL  SECTION. 
82  pounds  per  yard. 


.\PPENDIX  J. 


G15 


FIG.  385. 

EAST  INDIA  RAILWAY  CO.,  INDIA,  STANDARD  RAIL  SECTION. 

75  pounds  per  yard. 

Standard  joint.    2  bars,  19  inches  long,  34.0  Ibs.    4  bolts,  1  in.x4M  in.  long, 

6.5  Ibs. 


616 


APPENDIX  J. 


TABLE  No.  1. 

Tons  per  mile  and  feet  of  track  per  ton  of  rails  of  different 
weight  per  yard: 


POUNDS  PER 
YARD. 

GROSS  TONS  PER 
MILS. 

FKBT  OF  TRACK 
PER  TON  OF 

RAILS. 

POUNDS  PER 
YARD. 

GROSS  TONS  PER 
MILE. 

FEET  OF  TRACK 
PER  TON  OF 
RAILS. 

48 

75-43 

70.00 

84 

132.00 

40.  ©o 

49 

77.00 

68.57 

85 

133-57  ' 

39-53 

50 

78.57 

67.20 

86 

135-14 

39-07 

51 

80.14 

65.88 

87 

136.71 

38.62 

52 

81.71 

64.62 

88 

138.29 

38.18 

53 

83-29 

63.40 

89 

139-86 

37-75 

54 

84.86 

62.22 

90 

141-43 

37-33 

55 

86.43 

6l.O9 

91 

143-00 

36.92 

56 

88.00 

60.00 

92 

144-57 

36.52. 

57 

89-57 

58-95 

93 

146.14 

36.13 

58 

91.14 

57-93 

94 

147.71 

35-75 

59 

92.71 

56.95 

95 

149.29 

35-37 

60 

94.29 

56.00 

96 

150.86 

35-00 

61 

95.86 

55-o8 

97 

152-43 

34-64 

62 

97-43 

54-19 

98 

154.00 

34-29 

63 

99-00 

53-33 

99 

155-57 

33-94 

64. 

100.57 

52-50 

100 

I5/.I4 

33-6o 

«5 

102.14 

5I-69 

101 

158.71 

33-27 

66 

103.71 

50.91 

1  02 

160.29 

32-94 

67 

105.29 

50.15 

103 

161.86 

32.62 

68 

106.86 

49.41 

104 

163-43 

32.31 

69 

108.43 

48.70 

105 

16^.00 

32.00 

70 

110.00 

48.00 

106 

166.57 

31.70 

71 

111.57 

47-32 

107 

168.14 

31.40 

72 

»«3-»4 

46.67 

108 

169.71 

31.11 

73 

114.71 

46.03 

109 

171.29 

30.83 

74 

116.29 

.45-41 

no 

172.86 

30-54 

75 

117.86 

44.80 

III 

174-43 

30.27 

76 

1  19-43 

44.21 

112 

176.00 

30.00 

77 

121.00 

43.64 

«3 

177-57 

29-73 

78 

J22,57 

43-o8 

114 

179.14 

29-47 

79 

124.14 

42.53 

"5 

180.71 

29.22 

80 

125-71 

42.00 

ti6 

182.29 

28.97 

8t 

127.29 

41.48 

117 

183.86 

28.72- 

82 

128.86 

40.98 

118 

185-43 

28.47 

S3 

130.43 

40.48 

119 

187.00 

28.24 

1  20 

188.57 

28.00 

TABLE  No.  2. 
Splice  bars  and  bolts  for  one  mile  of  track. 


Length 
of  Rail. 
Feet. 

Number  of 
Splice  Bars 
Required. 

Number  of  Bolts  Required. 

Number  of 
Rails  or  Com- 
plete Joints. 

4-Hole  Splice. 

6-Hole  Splice. 

24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
30 
83 

880 
844 
812 
782 
754 
704 
640 

1,760 

1,688 
1,624 
1,564 
1,508 
1,408 
1,280 

2640 
2532 
2436 
2348 
2262 
2112 
1920 

440 
422 
406 
391 
377 
852 
320 

APPENDIX  J. 


617 


TABLE  No.  3. 

Number  of  fastenings  required  to  the  ton  of  rails. 


Weight 
of  Kail 
per  yard. 

24-foot 
Rail. 

25-foot 
Rail. 

26-foot 
Rail. 

27-foot 
Rail. 

28-foot 
Rail. 

30-  foot 
Rail. 

33-foot 
Rail. 

Pounds. 

Joints. 

Joints. 

Joints 

Joints. 

Joints. 

Joints. 

Joints. 

12 

23.33 

22.40 

21.53 

20.74 

20.00 

18.66 

16.96 

16 

17.50 

16.80 

16.15 

15.55 

15.00 

14.00 

12.72 

20 

14.00 

13.55 

12.92 

12.44 

12.00 

11.20 

10.18 

25 

11.20 

10.74 

10.32 

9.95 

9.68 

8.96 

8.14 

30 

9.83 

8.94 

8.60 

8.29 

8.00 

7.46 

6.78 

35 

8.00 

7.68 

7.38 

7.11 

6.86 

6.40 

5.81 

40 

7.00 

6.71 

6.45 

6.22 

5.99 

5.60 

5.09 

45 

6.22 

5.96 

5.74 

5.52 

5.33 

4.97 

4.52 

50 

5.60 

5.37 

5.16 

.97 

4.79 

4.48 

4.07 

55 

5.09 

4.88 

4.69 

.52 

4.36 

4.07 

3.70 

56 

5.00 

4.79 

4.61 

.44 

4.28 

4.00 

3.63 

60 

4.66 

4.47 

4.30 

.14 

4.00 

3.73 

3.39 

62 

4.51 

4.33 

4.16 

.01 

3.86 

3.61 

3.28 

64 

4.37 

4.19 

4  03 

3.88 

3.74 

3.50 

3.17 

65 

4  30 

4.13 

3.97 

3.82 

3.69 

3.44 

3.13 

67 

4.17 

4.00 

3.85 

3.71 

3.58 

3.34 

3.03 

70 

.... 

.... 

3.20 

2.90 

75 

2.98 

2.71 

80 

2.80 

2.54 

85 

2.63 

2.39 

90 

2.48 

2  26 

95 

2.35 

2.14 

100 

.... 

.... 

.... 

2.24 

2.03 

TABLE  No.  4. 

Spikes  required  per  mile  of  track. 


Size  Measured 
Under  Head. 

Average  Number 
Per  Keg  of 
200  pounds. 

Ties  Two  Feet  Be- 
tween Centre  and 
Four  Spikes  per  Tie, 
Makes  per  Mile. 

RAIL,  USED. 
Weight  per  yard. 

Inches. 

Pounds.     Kegs. 

by,  x  fs 

375 

5632    =    28.16 

45  to  VO 

5     x  /'„ 

400 

5280    =    28.4 

40  to  56 

5     x  Yt 

450 

4692    —    23.46 

40 

W*  x  H 

530 

3984    =     19.92 

35 

4     x  H 

600 

3520    =     17.60 

30 

4#  x  ,78 

680 

3104    •=    15.52 

25 

4      X  T7B 

720 

2932    -     14.66 

25 

SY,  x  tf, 

900 

2356    —     11.73 

20 

2V4x  % 

1342 

1572    —      7.86 

16 

2*xft 

1800 

1172    -      5.86 

12 

618 


APPENDIX  J. 


TABLE  No.  5. 

Giving  the  weight  of  standard  track  bolts;  pounds  per  1,000 
bolts  with  square  nuts. 


Diam. 

inches 

1" 

% 

% 

Ws 

2 
in. 

W 
in. 

2*4 
in. 

234 
in. 

3 
in. 

3* 
in. 

3V4 

in. 

3% 
in. 

4 
in. 

4M 
in. 

4!/a 
in. 

434 
in. 

5 
in. 

Diam 
inches 

Wt.of 
1000 
Nuts 

260 
352 
454 
626 
858 
1155 
1595 

274 
370 
476 
658 
901 
1210 
1666 

288 
388 
498 
690 
944 
1265 
1737 

302 

406 
520 
722 
98. 
1320 
1808 

316 
424 
542 
754 
1030 
1375 
1879 

330 
442 
564 
786 
1073 
1430 
1950 

344 
460 
586 
818 
1116 
1485 
2021 

358 
478 
608 
850 
1159 
1540 
2092 

372 
496 
630 
882 
1202 
1595 
2163 

386 
514 
652 
914 
1245 
1650 
2234 

400 
532 
674 
946 
1288 
1705 
2305 

414 
550 
696 
978 
1331 
1760 
2376 

428 
568 
718 
1010 
1374 
1815 
,2447 

M 

§ 
i* 

i« 

112 

146 
218 
245 
374 
525 
747 

Pounds  per  1,000  bolts  with  hexagon  nuts. 


Diam. 
inches 

2 

in. 

2H 
in. 

2y2 

in. 

234 
in. 

3 
in. 

3# 
in. 

3*4 
in. 

3K 
in. 

4 
in. 

^ 
In. 

4l/2 
in. 

434 
in. 

5 
in. 

Diam. 
inches 

Wt.of 
1000 
Nuts. 

$ 

I 

X 

m 

253 
32V 
436 
597 
822 
1087 
1513 

267 
345 
458 
629 
865 
1132 
1584 

281 
363 
480 
661 
908 
1187 
1655 

295 
381 
502 
693 
951 
12*2 
1726 

309 
399 
524 
725 
994 
1297 
1797 

323 
417 
546 
757 
1037 
1352 
1868 

337 
435 

568 
789 
1080 
1407 
1939 

351 

453 
590 
821 
1123 
1462 
2010 

365 
471 
612 
853 
1166 
1517 
2081 

379 
489 
634 
885 
1209 
1572 
2152 

393 
507 
656 
917 
1252 
1627 
2223 

407 
525 
678 
949 
1295 
1682 
2294 

421 
543 
700 
981 
1338 
1737 
2365 

*4 
& 
% 
% 

l* 

iy* 

93 
122 
182 
216 
316 
462 
685 

TABLE  No.  6. 
Average  number  of  track  bolts  in  a  keg  of  200  pounds. 


Size  of  Bolt. 

Square  Nut. 

Hexagon  Nut. 

Weight  of  Rail. 

ixx* 

8  pounds. 

194  x  yz 

940 

12  and  16  pounds. 

2     x  V4 

793 

20  pounds. 

2j£  x  *4 

763 

25  pounds. 

2^  x  *4 

733 

i. 

25  pounds. 

2*4  x  % 

390 

425 

30  pounds. 

379 

410 

35  pounds. 

34x% 

366 

395 

40  and  45  pounds. 

3     x  /i£ 

250 

270 

Sfcxfc 

243 

261 

236 

253 

3?4  x  94 

229 

244 

4     xK 

222 
170 

236 
180 

- 

50  pounds  and  upwards  . 

394  x  % 

165 

175 

4     x  % 

161 

170 

4^  x  % 

157 

165 

4V£x  % 

153 

160 

APPENDIX  J. 


619 


TABLE  No.  7. 

Showing  amount  of  expansion  of  steel  rails  and  thickness 
of  shim  required  for  a  30-foot  rail,  as  given  by  Mr.  W.  C. 
Downing,  Engineer  of  Maintenance  of  Way  of  the  Vandalia 
Line. 


VARIATIONS. 

Temperature 

Thickness  of  Ex- 

Degree 
Fahrenheit. 

In  Decimals  of 

In  Fractions  of 

pansion   Shim 
in  Inches. 

an  inch. 

an  inch. 

—  30 

.3744 

24-64 

6-16 

—  20 

.3510 

23-64 

6-16 

—  10 

.3276 

21-64 

6-16 

0 

.3042 

19-64 

5-16 

10 

.2808 

18-64 

5-18 

20 

.2574 

16-64 

4-16 

30 

.2340 

15-64 

4-16 

40 

.2100 

14-64 

4-16 

50 

.1872 

12-64 

3  16 

60 

.1638 

10-64 

3-16 

70 

.1404 

9-64 

3-16 

80 

.1170 

7-64 

2-16 

90 

.0936 

6-64 

2-16 

100 

.0702 

5-64 

1-16 

110 

.0*68 

3-64 

1-16 

120 

.0234 

1-64 

1-16 

K'O 

.0000 

....       ^ 

The   rails  are  supposed  to   be  in  contact  at  a  temperature  of  130 
degrees   Fahrenheit. 


620 


APPENDIX  J. 


TABLE  No.  8. 
Capacity  of  duplex  and  single  acting  pumps. 


Si/eof  I'imip. 

•3 

t 

ti 

IMpia.  ° 

j 

. 

£ 

4 

~z 

fl 

j 

•s| 

£ 

E 

X 

i  §£ 

5  1 

t£ 
—  O 

•7-  .0 

. 

1 

| 

5 

~t 

$5 

|s 

*c 

S.J 

ff 

pj 

« 

^ 

£ 

ii 

I'll 

tt 

c^1 

.£1 

S  t; 

~ 

5 

O 

M 

*~  i 

.22 

•~> 

? 

~1  ~ 

II 

"«*£ 

5 

'"£ 

§ 

|S 

.Jk 

—  cc 

a;~- 

J 

po 

a:— 

i3»^  tt 

cc 

— 

«« 

s 

i-j: 

3 

2K 

4 

.06 

100  to  200 

12to  24 

tt 

K 

1^ 

210 

29KxllK 

5X 

4.% 

5 

.31 

100  to  150 

62  to  93 

I 

ly^ 

3 

570 

39Kxl6  ' 

0 

5 

(5 

.51 

100  to  150 

102  to  153 

1 

IK 

4 

840 

45  x!7 

6 

5^ 

6 

.67 

100  to  150 

134  to  201 

1 

IK 

4 

1240 

49  x!7 

7 

6 

10 

1.22 

75  to  150 

183  to  366 

IK 

2 

5 

1790 

72  x23 

8 

7 

12 

2.00 

75  to  125 

300  to  500 

2 

6 

2780 

7»  x28 

8 

8 

12 

2.61 

75  to  125 

39110  652 

IK 

2 

6 

3720 

82  x35 

8 

10 

12 

4.08 

75  to  125 

612  to  1020 

IK 

2 

8 

7 

6200 

90  x43 

8 

10 

15 

5.10 

60  to  100 

61  2  to  1020 

IK 

2 

8 

6300 

96  x43 

10 

8 

12 

2.61 

75  to  125 

391to  6522 

2K 

6 

5 

3940 

82  x35 

10 

10 

12 

4.08 

75  to  125 

612  to  1020 

2 

2K 

8 

7 

6300 

90  x43 

10 

10 

15 

5.10 

60  to  100 

61  2  to  1020 

2 

2K 

8 

7 

6400 

96  x43 

10 

12 

12 

5.87 

75  to  125 

880  to  1468  2 

2K 

10 

8 

0350 

90  x56 

10 

12 

15 

7.34 

60  to  100 

880  to  1468  2 

2K 

10 

8 

0800 

96  x5G 

12 

10 

12 

4.08 

75  to  125 

612  to  1020  2K 

3 

8 

7 

6600 

91  x43 

12 

10 

15 

5.10 

60  to  100 

612  to  1020  2K 

3 

8 

7 

6800 

96  x43 

12 

12 

12 

5.87 

75  to  125 

880  to  1468  2l/2 

3 

10 

8 

0408 

90  x56 

12 
12 

12 
14 

15 
15 

7.34 
9.99 

60  to  100 
60  to  100 

880  to  1468  2^ 
1200  to  2000  2K 

3 
3 

10 
12 

8 
10 

0990  97  xnQ 
59301  97  x56 

12 

14 

18 

12.00 

50  to  85 

1200  to  2039  2K 

3 

12 

10 

6550  122  x5i> 

12 

15 

18 

13.77 

50  to  85 

1377  to  2340  2^ 

3 

12 

0 

6550126  x57 

The   gallons   delivered   by   a   single  acting  pump   are   one-half  the 
amount  given  in  the  table, 


APPENDIX  J. 


621 


TABLE  No.  9. 


SWITCH  TIBS. 
Gauge,  4  feet,  8^  inches. 

Number  of  Switch  Ties  for  Split  Switch- 
es, Single  Throw,  for  Frogs  of 
following  Numbers. 

Length. 

Size. 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Feet.        In. 

Feet.       In. 

8            3 

7          10 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

8             6 

7           10 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

b 

8             9 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

9             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

9             3 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

9             6 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

9             9 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10             3 

7           10 

2 

2 

10             6 

7            10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10             9 

7            10 

2 

2 

11             0 

7            10 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

11             3 

7            10 

11             6 

7           10 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

12             0 

7            10 

1 

8 

2 

2 

3 

3 

12             6 

7            10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

13             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

13             3 

7           10 

13             6 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

14             0 

7           10 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

14             6 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

15             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

15             6 

7           10 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

Head  Blocks, 

16  feet,  0  in.;  10  in.  x  12  In. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Common  Switch  Stand. 

Head  Block, 

16  feet,  0  in.  ;  JO  in.  x  12  In. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

When  automatic  switch  stands  are  used  omit  the  first  switch  tie 
and  use  two  head  blocks. 

When  pony  switch  stands  are  used  the  head  block  should  be  13 
feet  6  inches  long. 


C22 


APPENDIX  J. 


TABLE  No.  10. 


SWITCH  TIES. 
Gauge,  4  feet,  8^  inches. 

Number  of  Switch  Ties  for  Split  Switcl  - 
es,  Three  Throw,  for  Frogs  of 
Following  Numbers. 

Length. 

Size. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Feet.       In. 

Feet.       In. 

8             3 

7          10 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

8             6 

7           10 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

9             0 

7           10 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

9            6 

7           10 

2 

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

10             0 

7           10 

3 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

10             6 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

11             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

11             6 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

IS             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12            6 

7           10 

2 

2 

13            0 

7           10 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

13            6 

7           10 

2 

2 

14            0 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

15            0 

7           10 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

16            0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

17             0 

7           10 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

18             0 

7           10 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

19             0 

7            10 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

8 

20             0 

7            10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

2 

21             0 

7            10 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

22             0 

7           10 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

23             0 

7            10 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

24             0 

7            10 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Head  Blocks. 

16  feet,  0  inches—  10  in.  x  12  in. 

'     1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

When  automatic  switch  stands  are  used  omit  the  first  switch  tie 
and  use  two  head  blocks. 

When  pony  switch  stands  are  used,  the  head  block  should  be 
13  feet  6  inches  long. 


APPENDIX  J. 


623 


TABLE  No.  11. 

Data  for  Stub  Switches,  4  feet,8£  inch  Gauge,  throw-off  Switch 
Rail,  5  inches. 


g 

V 

"to 

c 

CM 

O 

i 

1 

!* 

I, 

£ 

:! 

§ 

I 

to 

1! 

i 

u 

03 

F 

f. 

p  w 

lo 

It 
<& 

I* 

Feet. 

Feet. 

"Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

4 

14°  16' 

38°  54' 

150.2 

11.5 

26.4 

37.9 

2.8 

20021' 

15.1 

5 

11°  26" 

24034' 

235.0 

14.1 

33.2 

47.3 

3.5 

160  14' 

19.2 

ft 

170  (X 

338.7 

16.8 

39.8 

56.6 

4.2 

13°  ar 

23.0 

7 

8°  10- 

12°  26' 

461.8 

19.6 

46.5- 

66.1 

4.9 

26.9 

8 

7°  10* 

9033- 

600.0 

22.3 

53.2 

75.5 

5.7 

100  g; 

30.9 

9 

6022' 

7°  31' 

761.6 

25.1 

59.7 

84.8 

6.4 

34.7 

10 

5044' 

6°  ff 

938.6 

27.8 

66.3 

94.1 

7.1 

8°  8* 

38.4 

11 

5°  V 

5°.  r 

1141.8 

308 

73.0 

103.8 

7.8 

7022* 

42.4 

12 

•4047' 

4°  13* 

1358.2 

33.6 

79.6 

113.2 

8.5 

4&4 

TABLE  No.  12. 

Data  for  Stub  Switches,  3  feet,  0  inch  Gauge,  throw-off  Switr  h 
Rail,  4  ifhches. 


& 

I 

Frog  Angle. 

fc 

O 

s 

Switch  Rail. 

Toe  to  Frog 
Point. 

Heel  to  Frog 
Point 

Number  6f 
Crotch  Frog. 

*! 

« 

•<U 

Toe  to  Crotch 
Frog. 

Feet. 

FeeL 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

4 

140  iff 

63°  8* 

9C.O 

8.1 

16.1 

24.2 

2.8 

20°  21' 

9.0 

• 

11°  26- 

390  4' 

150.0 

10.1 

20.1 

80.2 

3.5 

lt.°  14' 

11.3 

6 

9°32' 

26°  48* 

215.7 

12.0 

24.1 

36.1 

4.2 

13°35' 

13.5 

7 

801CT 

19°34' 

294.3 

14.0 

28.1 

42.1 

4.9 

IP  37' 

15.8 

8 

7°  10* 

15°  0* 

382.5 

16.2 

31.8 

48.0 

5.7 

10°  8* 

17.9 

9 

6022* 

IPSO" 

484.9 

17.4 

36.1 

54.0 

6.4 

90  r 

20.2 

10 

6044' 

9°  35' 

598.5 

19.9 

40.1 

600 

7.1 

8°  8* 

22.5 

11 

5°  12* 

7°  54' 

722.9 

21.9 

44.1 

66.0 

7.8 

7°22- 

24.0 

12 

4<>47' 

6°40' 

859.7 

23.9 

48,0 

71.9 

8.5 

fl»44' 

26.9 

624 


APPENDIX  J. 


TABLE  No.  13. 
Bill  of  switch  ties  for  standard  gauge  stub  switches. 


t 

1 

*! 

.   m 

*i 

t 

§ 
1 

Size. 

Length. 

£ 

5 

&  £ 

Is 

£  s 

M 

.: 

0 

Si* 

CO    CM 

6    ° 

s 

3 

** 

1 

0 

fc 

o 

% 

5s  o 

55 

1 

0 

fc 

10x12 

16  feet. 

j 

J 

i 

^ 

1 

7x    9 

9  feet. 

2 

2 

3 

4 

5 

7x   9 

9  feet,  6  inches. 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

I 

7x   9 

10  feet. 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

7x   9 

10  feet,  6  inches. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

7x   9 

11  feet. 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

7x   9 

11  feet,  6  inches. 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

7x   9 

12  feet. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

7x   9 

12  feet,  6  inches. 

j 

4 

2 

2 

3 

7x10 

13  feet. 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

7x10 

13  feet,  6  inches. 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

7x10 

14  feet. 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

7x   9 

14  feet,  6  inches. 

1 

2 

2 

2 

7x   9 

15  feet. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

S 

7x   9 

15  feet,  6  inches. 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

7x   9 

16  feet. 

1 

2 

1 

2 

i 

TABLE  No.  14. 

Bill  of  switch  ties  for  a  narrow  (three  foot)  gauge  singla 
throw  stub  switch,  using  a  number  10  frog. 

6  pieces,  6  inches  x  8  inches,   8  feet  long. 
6       ••  "  '<          9 

6       ••  «•  "         10       " 

4        "  "  **          12 

Cross  ties  in  main  track  can  be  0  in- 
ches x  7  inches,  6  feet  long. 


APPENDIX  J. 


625 


TABLE  No.  15. 

Table  giving  distance  D  Fig.  245  being  the  distance  be- 
tween the  actual  point  of  the  frogs  of  a  cross-over  on  4-feet 
8  %  -inch  gauge. 


TRACK  CENTERS.    "C." 

No.  of 
Frog. 

Ft.  In. 
11    6 

Ft.  In. 
12    0 

Ft.  In. 
12    6 

Ft.  In. 
13    0 

Ft.  In. 
13    6 

Ft.  In. 
14    0 

Ft.  In. 
14    6 

Ft.  In. 
15    0 

Ft.IU. 
15    6 

Ft.  1  n. 
16    0 

6 

11    6*6 

14    5% 

17    5^ 

20    5% 

23    5yB 

26    4% 

29    4% 

32    4% 

35    4/8 

38    3% 

7 

13    7# 

17    \Ya 

20    6% 

24    0% 

27    8* 

31    0% 

34    6H 

38    0 

41    5% 

44  11% 

8 

15    7# 

19    7 

23    6% 

27    6^ 

31    6A 

35    6 

39    5% 

43    5^ 

47    b% 

51    5 

16    8 

20  10% 

25    IVi 

29    4% 

33    7# 

37  10 

42    0% 

46    3% 

50    OK 

54    9 

9 

17    8 

22    IK 

26    7^ 

31     1# 

35    7 

40    0% 

44    6^ 

49    0& 

53    6 

57  11% 

10 

19    8^ 

24    7% 

29    7% 

34    7% 

39    7^ 

44    6% 

49    6% 

54    6% 

59    6i/8 

64    5% 

11 

21    9*6 

27    3 

32    9 

38    3 

43    8% 

49    2& 

54    8^ 

60    2K 

65    V/s 

71    2^ 

TABLE  No.  16. 

Widening  the  gauge  of  standard  gauge  track  on  curves  as 
recommended  by  the  Headmasters'  Association  in  1898. 


Degree  of 
Curve. 


Amount  to 

Widen 
the  Gauge. 

1  degree 0  inches 

0 

0 

4  0 

5  0 

6  0 

7 

8 
9 


Degree  of 
Curve- 

Amount 
Widei 
the  Gau 
y±  incl 

to 
1 

PC. 

ics 

11       " 

...  % 

12        " 

2 

13        «•        

^ 

14        " 

% 

15       ««        

3 

16       " 

.........  & 

17       *' 

m 

11)       " 

.:.;  :P 

40    Vol. 


62G 


APPENDIX  J. 


tl 

fl  g1 
o  p 


^H  ^H  r-i  «  rt  T-C  KI  N  <M  ec  cc  co  •«<  -^  to  in  ITS  o  «D  t»  t»  t-  oo  co  as  o> 


«N  !N  W  CQ  (N  <N  < 


si 


0        O        0 


APPENDIX  J. 


627 


TABLE  No.  18. 
Table  of  middle  ordinates.* 


Radius. 


LENGTH  OF  RAILS. 


30    28    26    34    22    20    18     16    14    12    1O 


Feet. 

11460 

5730 

3820 

2865 

2292 

1910 

1637 

1433 

1274 

1146 

1042 
955.4 
882 
819 
764.5 
716.8 
674.6 
637.3 
603.8 
573.7 
524.7 
478.3 
441.7 
410.3 
383.1 
359.3 
338.3 
319.6 
302.9 
287.9 


Ordinates  at  quarters  equal  three-fourths  of  the  middle  ordinates. 

*Tbe  middle  ordinate  is  the  perpendicular  distance  from  a  chord 
or  line  stretched  from  end  to  end  of  the  rail  to  the  gauge  side  of  the 
rail  at  the  center  of  the  rail. 

The  ordinate  at  the  quarter  point  is  the  perpendicular  distance  from 
a  chord  or  line  stretched  from  end  to  end  of  the  rail  to  the  gauge 
side  of  the  rail  at  the  quarter  point  of  the  rail. 


628 


APPENDIX  J. 


TABLE  No.  19. 

Giving  the  square  feet  of  bearing  surface  ties  eight  feet 
long  and  of  different  width  have  on  the  ballast  or  roadbed. 


NUMBER  OF 
TIES  TO  A 
30-FOOT  RAIL. 

LENGTH  OF  TIE  EIGHT  FEET. 

Square  feet  of  surface  for  ties  of  the  following  width. 

7  inches. 

8  inches. 

9  inches. 

10  inches. 

14 
15 
16 
17 

18 

65.24 
69.90 
74.56 

79.22 
83.88 

74.62 
79.95 
85.28 
90.61 
95.94 

84.00 
9000 
9600 
102.00 
1U8.00 

93.24 
99.90 
106.56 
11322 
119.88 

APPENDIX  K. 


BEING    A    TABLE    SETTING    FORTH    MODERN    AUTHORI- 
TIES ON  THE   LOCATION,  CONSTRUCTION,  TRACK 
AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  RAILWAYS.* 


£ 

U 

IJJ 

E( 

DT 

S 

IRE 

Ar 

L'E 

D 

OF 

NAME  OF  AUTHOR. 

noissance. 

>. 
X 

3 
J. 
» 
hi 

a 

a 

>, 

a 
n 

c! 

I 

X 

*  Gradienter. 

\ 

ition  Curves. 

ities.  Excavation 
Embankments. 

§ 

0 

& 

B  and  Buildings. 

I 

1 

a 

2 
& 

1 

•H 

% 

8 

p 

§ 

a 

c3 

^- 

f 

Const 

I 

ic 

-a 
'E 

3 

•«•  -2 

o  a 

11 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

0 

1 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1213 

Baker  I  O 

Berg  W  G 

* 

Burr  W.  H  

* 

Butts  E 

* 

* 

Boiler,  A.  P  

• 

Boulton  SB                                 .    . 

* 

Bowser,  E.  A  

0 

Crandall  C.  L                    

* 

* 

Crehore   J  D 

# 

Crehore  Wm  W  

* 

Cooper  Theo  .... 

# 

Cross  C  S 

* 

* 

* 

Du  Bois,  A.  J  

* 

Davis  J.  W 

* 

Department  of  Agriculture  

• 

Dillenbeck  C  

* 

Drinker  H  S    .     .  . 

• 

Elliott  W.  H  

• 

• 

* 

Foster  W.  C  

• 

Gieseler   E.  A  

* 

Greene    C.  E  

* 

Godwin  H  C    ..  .           .... 

* 

# 

* 

Howard  C  R  

* 

* 

Howe,  M.  A.  

* 

* 

* 

Johnson,  J.  B  

* 

• 

* 

* 

* 

*The  titles  of  the  author's  works  with  a  brief  description  of  the 
same,  and  the  price,  are  appended  to  this  volume.  The  World  Rail- 
way Publishing  Co.,  Chicago,  III.,  is  prepared  to  mail  any  of  these 
books  upon  receipt  of  the  price. 

(629) 


630 


APPENDIX  K. 


NAME  OF  AUTHOR. 


Johnson,  Bryan  &  Turneaure. 

Kindelan.  J 

Merriman  &  Brooks 

Merriman  &  Jacoby 

Merriman,  M 

Merrill,  Wm.  E 

Morison,  G.  S 

Nagle,  J.  C 

Osborn 

Paine,  G.  H 

Patton,  W.  M 

Plympton,  G.  W 

Paul,H 

Reed,  H.  A 

Searles,  Wm.  H 

Shunk,  W.  F 

Simms,  W.F 

Simms,  F.  W 

Smith  &  McMillan 

Spalding,  F.  P 

Torrey,  A 

Tratm.in ,  E.  E.  R 

Trautwine,  J.  C 

Wellington,  A.  M 

Whipple,  S , 

Wright,  C.  H 

Winslow,  A 

Henck.J.  B 


SUBJECTS  TREATED  OF 

a 

o   . 

t/i 

o> 
1  & 

C3    >» 

a 

^ 

dienter. 

Curves. 

Excavat 
ankment 

* 

Building 

* 

Reconnoiss 
Preliminai 

Topograph 

Use  of  Sta 

Use  of  Gra 
Location?" 

Transition 

Quantities 
und  Emb 

Construct! 

Masonry. 

Bridge  and 

Track. 

Maintenan 

1    2 

3 

4 

5   6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1213 

*   * 

* 

* 

*   * 

• 

* 

* 

* 

* 

*    # 

*   * 

:•: 

# 

*   * 

* 

• 

* 

1 

* 

*   * 

• 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

#   * 

* 

* 
* 

# 
* 

*    * 

* 

* 

* 

* 

1    2 

8 

4 

5    6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1213 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTIONS    OF    WORKS  OF  AUTHORS  RE- 
FERRED TO  IN  APPENDIX  K.* 

BAKER — Engineers'   Surveying    Instruments. 

By  Ira  O.   Baker.     Each   instrument  is   considered   sep- 
arately, the  best  form  of  construction  is  discussed,  the 


*The  World  Railway  Publishing  Company,  Chicago,  111.,  is  prepared 
to  mail  any  book  mentioned  herein,  upon  receipt  of  the  price. 


APPENDIX  K.  631 

sources  of  error  in  use  are  pointed  out,  data  are  given 
as  to  the  degree  of  precision  attained  in  actual  practice, 
and  suggestions  are  made  as  to  the  most  accurate,  rapid, 
and  convenient  methods  of  using  it.  Second  edition,  re- 
vised and  greatly  enlarged.  Bound  in  cloth,  400  pages, 
5x7%  inches,  86  illustrations,  copious  index,  12mo, 
cloth  $3.00 

Chapters  :  Chain  and  Tape,  Tripod  and  Leveling  Screws,  Mag- 
netic Compass,  Solar  Compass,  Telescope,  Vernier,  Transit,  Solar 
Transit,  Plane  Table,  Stadia  and  Gradienter,  Spirit  Level,  An,- 
eroid  and  Mercurial  Barometers. 

"A  most  excellent  work." — Engineering  News. 

BAKER — A  Treatise  on   Masonry  Construction. 

Containing  materials  and  method  of  testing  strength,  etc., 
Combinations  of  Materials — Composition,  etc.;  Founda- 
tions— Testing  the  bearing  power  of  soils,  etc.;  Masonry 
Structure — Stability  against  sliding,  overturning,  crush- 
ing, etc.,  etc.,  etc.  Complete  in  one  volume  of  about  500 
pages,  with  125  illustrations  and  eight  or  ten  folding 
plates.  By  Ira  O.  Baker,  C.E.  Ninth  edition,  8vo, 
cloth  $5.00 

"If  you  wish  the  best  book  ever  published  in  the  English  lan- 
guage on  Masonry  Construction,  turn  with  confidence  to  this 
treatise." — Building. 

"We  should  be  doing  injustice  to  both  author  and  publisher 
did  we  not  declare  at  once  our  conviction  that  thig  is  the  most 
valuable  and  complete  Treatise  on  Masonry  as  yet  published,  at 
least  in  English." — Engineering  News. 

BAKER.— D.  Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series. 

No.  91.  Leveling:  Barometric,  Trigonometric,  and  Spirit. 
By  Prof.  I.  O.  Baker.  18mo,  board 50c 

BERG. — Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads. 
A  reference  book  for  railroad  managers,  superintendents, 
master  mechanics,  engineers,  architects  and  students.  By 
Walter  G.  Berg,  C.E.,  principal  assistant  engineer  Lehigh 
Valley  railroad.  534  pages,  700  illustrations,  4to 
cloth  $7.50 

Preface. 

Chap.  I.  Watchman's  Shanties.  XI.  Sand  Houses. 

II.  Section  Tool  Houses.  XII.  Oil  Storage  Houses. 

III.  Section  Houses.  XIII.  Oil  Mixing  Houses. 

IV.  Dwelling  Houses  for  Employe's.  XIV.  Water  Stations. 

V.  Sleeping    Quarters,    Reading       XV.  Coaling  Stations  for  Loco- 
Rooms  and  Club  Houses  for  motives. 
Employes.                                     XVI.  Engine  Houses. 
VI.  Snow   Sheds   and  Protection    XVII.  Freight  Houses. 

Sheds  for  Mountain  Slides.    XVIII    Platforms,  Platform  Sheds 
VII.  Signal  Towers.  and  Shelters. 

VIII.  Car  Sheds  and  Car  Cleaning      XIX.  Combination  Depots. 

Yards.  XX.  Flag  Depots. 

IX.  Ash  Pits,  XXI.  Local  Passenger  Depots. 

X.  Ice  Houses.  XXII.  Terminal  Passenger  Depots. 

Appendix. 


632  APPENDIX  K. 

BURR. — A  Course  on  the  Stresses  In  Bridges  and  Roof 
Trusses,  Arched  Ribs,  and  Suspension  Bridges. 
Prepared  for  the  department  of  civil  engineering  at  the 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute.  By  Prof.  W.  H.  Burr, 
Ninth  edition,  revised.  With  appendix  on  cantilevers. 
Nearly  the  entire  section  of  swing  bridges  has  been  com- 
pletely rewritten  and  considerably  extended.  Plates,  8vo, 
cloth  . $3.50 

"No  better  practical  work  on  Bridge  Stresses  has  yet  ap- 
peared."— M echa-nical  World  (London). 

"The  book  will  be  valuable  not  only  to  the  student  of  Bridge 
Engineering,  but  to  the  Engineer  who  is  already  in  practice." — 
Journal  Railway  Appliances. 

BUTTS.— The  Civil  Engineer's  Field  Book. 

Designed  for  the  use  of  the  locating  engineer.  Con- 
taining tables  of  actual  tangents  and  arcs,  expressed  in 
chords  of  600  feet  for  every  minute  of  intersection,  from 
0  deg.  to  90  deg.,  from  Al  deg.  curve  to  A10  deg.  curve 
inclusive.  Also,  tables  of  formulae  applicable  to  railroad 
curves  and  the  location  of  frogs,  together  with  radii,  long 
chords,  grades,  tangents,  natural  sines,  natural  versed 
sines,  natural  external  secants,  etc.  With  explanatory 
problems.  By  Edward  Butts,  C.E.  Second  edition,  re- 
vised, 12mo,  morocco  flaps $2.50 

"The  work  is  a  monument  of  patience  on  the  part  of  the 
author,  and  should  prove  a  labor-saving  investment  to  the  pur- 
chaser. It  is  a  'Henck'  elaborated,  and  this  is  quite  recom- 
mendation enough — to  the  practicing  engineer." — Engineering 

News, 

BOLLER. — The  Thames  River  Bridge. 

A  report  to  the  general  manager  of  the  New  York,  Prov- 
idence &  Boston  railroad  upon  the  construction  of  the 
Thames  River  bridge  and  approaches  at  New  London, 
Conn.  By  Alfred  P.  Boiler,  chief  engineer.  Illustrated 
with  numerous  folding  plates  and  a  handsome  heliotype 
of  the  bridge.  Limited  edition,  4to,  paper $5.00 

BOULTON.— D.   Van    Nostrand's  Science  Series. 

No.  82.  The  Preservation  of  Timber  by  the  Use  of  Anti- 
septics. By  Samuel  Bagster  Boulton,  C.  E.  18mo 50c 

BOWSER. — A  Treatise   on    Roofs   and    Bridges,  with   Numer- 
ous  Exercises. 

By  Edward  A.  Bowser,  professor  of  mathematics  and  en- 
gineering in  Rutgers  College.     Partial  table  of  contents: 
CHAPTER  I. — ROOF  TRUSSES  :     1.    Definitions — 2.    The  Dead 
Load— 3.    The  Live  Load — 4.    The  Apex  Loads  and  Reactions — 

5.  Relations   between    External    Forces    and    Internal    Stresses — 

6.  Methods    of     Calculation— 7.     Lever     Arms— Indeterminate 


APPENDIX  K.  633 

Cases — 8.  Snow  Load  Stresses — 9.  Wind  Loads — 10.  Complete 
Calculations  of  a  Roof  Truss. 

CHAPTER  II. — BRIDGE  TRUSSES  WITH  UNIFORM  LOADS: 
13.  Definitions — 14.  Different  Forms  of  Trusses — 15.  The  Dead 
Load — 16.  The  Live  Load — 17.  Shear — Shearing  Stress — 
18.  Web  Stresses  due  to  Dead  Loads — 19.  Chord  Stresses  due  to 
Dead  Loads — 20.  Position  of  Uniform  Live  Load  causing  Maxi- 
mum Chord  Stresses — 21.  Maximum  Stresses  in  the  Chords— 

22.  Position  of  Uniform  Live  Load  causing  Maximum  Shears — 

23.  The    Warren    Truss — 24.     Mains    and    Counters — 25.     The 
Howe    Truss — 26.     The    Pratt    Truss — 27.     The    WTarren    Truss, 
with    Vertical    Suspenders — 28.      The     Double    Warren    Truss — 
29.    The  Whipple  Truss — 30.    The  Lattice  Truss — 34.    The  Par- 
abolic   Bowstring    Truss — 35.     The    Circular    Bowstring    Truss — 
36.    Snow  Load  Stresses — 37.    Stresses  due  to  Wind  Pressure — 
38.    The  Factor  of  Safety. 

CHAPTER  III. — BRIDGE  TRUSSES  WITH  UNEQUAL  DISTRIBUTION 
OP  THE  LOADS  :  39.  Preliminary  Statement — 40.  When  the  Uni- 
form Train  Load  is  preceded  by  One  or  More  Heavy  Excess 
Panel  Loads — 41.  When  One  Concentrated  Excess  Load  accom- 
panies a  Uniform  Train  Load — 42.  When  Two  Equal  Concen- 
trated Excess  Loads  accompany  a  Uniform  Train  Load — 43.  The 
Baltimore  Truss — 44.  The  Maximum  Shears  for  Uniform  Live 
L0a(j — 45.  Locomotive  Wheel  Loads — 46.  Position  of  Wheel 
Loads  for  Maximum  Shear — 47.  Position  of  Wheel  Loads  for 
Maximum  Moment  at  Joint  in  Loaded  Chord — 48.  Position  of 
Wheel  Loads  for  Maximum  Moment  at  Joint  in  Unloaded  Chord — 
49.  Tabulation  of  Moments  of  Wheel  Loads. 
CRANDALL. — Railway  and  Other  Earthwork  Tables. 

By  Prof.  Chas.  L.  Crandall.     8vo,  cloth $1.50 

CRANDALL— The  Transition  Curve. 

By  Prof.  Chas.  L.  Crandall,  Cornell  University.  12mo, 
morocco  flap $1.50 

CREHORE.— Mechanics  of  the  Girder. 

A  treatise  on  bridges  and  roofs,  in  which  the  necessary 
and  sufficient  weight  of  the  structure  is  calculated,  not 
assumed,  and  the  number  of  panels  and  height,  of  girder 
that  render  the  bridge  weight  least  for  a  given  "span,  live 
load  and  wind  pressure  are  determined.  By  John  D.  Cre- 
hore,  C.E.  Illustrated  by  over  100  engravings,  with 
tables,  etc.,  8vo,  cloth $5.00 

"The  Mechanics  of  the  Girder  for  all  the  various  shapes  that 
It  assumes  before  the  Engineer,  seems  to  have  received  here 
thorough  and  elegant  treatment." — -Journal  of  Franklin  Institute. 

The  work  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  science  and  to  the 
literature  of  bridge  building." — W.  H.  SEARLES,  C.  E. 

CREHORE,    WM.   W.— Tables    and    Diagrams   for    Engineers 
and  Architects. 

Fifteen  tables  and  nine  diagrams  for  making  various  cal- 
culations for  structural  work.  List  sent  on  request. 
Price,  25  to  50  cents  each;  complete  set $7.50 

COOPER,  THEODORE.— American  Railroad  Bridges. 

Cloth,  7x9%  inches;  60  pp.,  7  tables  and  26  full-page  and 
folding  plates  $2.00 


634  APPENDIX  K. 

"Specifications   for   Iron   and    Steel   Highway    Bridges." 

(1890.)     Paper,  7x9%  inches;  23  pp 25c 

"Specifications    for    Iron    and    Steel    Railroad    Bridges." 

(1890.)     Paper,  7x9%  inches;   25  pp 25c 

"Specifications  for  Steel  Highway  Bridges."  (1896.)  Pa- 
per, 7x9%  inches;  25  pp 25c 

"Specifications  for  Steel  Railroad  Bridges."  (1896.)  Pa- 
per, 7x9%  inches;  24  pp 25c 

CROSS,  C.  S.— Engineers'  Field  Book. 

Cloth,  4%x7  inches;  166  pp.;  illustrated $1.00 

DU  BOIS. — The  Stresses  in  Framed  Structures. 

The  present  edition  of  this  well-known  work  appears  in  a 
new  form,  greatly  reduced  in  size  and  weight,  rewritten 
and  reset  and  printed  from  new  plates.  It  contains  the 
latest  practice  and  much  new  matter  never  heretofore 
published.  Swing  bridges,  the  braced  arch  and  the  sus- 
pension system  receive  an  entirely  new  treatment.  New 
chapters  are  added  upon  erection,  by  John  Sterling 
Deans,  C.E.,  and  high-building  construction,  by  Wm.  W. 
Crehore,  C.E.  Illustrated,  with  hundreds  of  cuts  and  35 
full-page  and  14  folding  plates.  By  Prof.  A.  Jay  Du  Bois. 
Tenth  edition,  1  vol.,  4to,  cloth $10.00 

DAVIS,  JOHN  W.,  C.E.— Formulae  for  the  Calculation  of 
Railroad  Excavation  and  Embankment  and  for  Finding 
Average  Haul. 

Second  edition.     Octavo,  half  roan $1.50 

DILLENBECK.— Specifications    for    Railway    Stations, 

By  Clark  Dillenbeck.  Stone  and  brick  passenger  sta- 
tions, frame  passenger  stations,  stone  and  brick  freight 
houses,  frame  freight  houses.  Each  occupying  about  32 
pages,  8x14  inches.  Price  40  cents  each;  full  set. . .  .$1.50 

DRINKER. — Tunneling,  Explosive  Compounds  and  Rock 
Drills. 

Giving  the  details  of  practical  tunnel  work,  properties  of 
modern  explosives,  principles  of  blasting  and  descriptions 
and  uses  of  the  various  rock  drills  and  compressors,  to- 
gether with  American  and  foreign  systems  of  arching, 
and  tables  showing  costs  and  dimensions  of  over  2,100 
tunnels  from  every  part  of  the  world.  By  Henry  S. 
Drinker.  Profiles,  maps  and  over  1,000  illustrations. 
Third  edition,  4to,  half  bound $25.00 

"We  think  the  comprehensive  and  thorough  nature  of  the  work 
will  lead  its  readers  to  wonder,  not  that  it  has  been  delayed  so 
long,  but  rather  that  it  has  been  completed  so  soon,  For  the 


APPENDIX  K.  635 

conception  and  execution  of  such  a  work,  Mr.  Drinker  deserve! 
our  thanks  no  less  than  our  congratulations." — Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal. 

Department  of  Agriculture. 

Forestry  Division  of  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Bulletin  No.  4  (1890):  "History  and  Use  of 
Steel  Ties." 

Bulletin  No.  9  (1894):  "Steel  Ties  and  Preservation  of 
Timber." 

ELLIOTT. — Block  and   Interlocking   Signals. 

FOSTER.— Wooden  Trestle  Bridges. 

According  to  the  present  practice  on  American  railroads, 
treating  of  pile  bents,  pile  drivers,  framed  bents,  floor 
system,  bracing  trestles  of  all  kinds,  iron  details,  connec- 
tion with  embankment  and  protection  against  accidents, 
field  engineering  and  erection,  preservation  and  standard 
specifications,  bills  of  material,  records  and  maintenance, 
working  drawings.  By  Wolcott  C.  Foster,  C.E.  Second 

edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     4to,  cloth $5.00 

"The  result  is  a  book  the  like  of  which  does  not  exist  In  anj 
language,  and  which  is  often  called  for  by  practicing  engineers 
and  also  in  technical  schools." — Railroad  Gazette. 

GIESELER. — Scales  for  Turnouts. 

By  E.  A.  Gieseler.  Gives  graphically  the  frog  numbers, 
length  of  lead  and  degree  of  curvature  for  turnouts  from 
3  deg.  to  42  deg.  30  min.  Stiff  cardboard,  pocket  size. 
More  convenient  and  certain  than  tables.  Price,  with 
full  directions  for  use 25c 

GREENE. — Graphics  for  Engineers,  Architects  and  Builders. 
A  manual  for  designers  and  a  text-book  for  scientific 
schools. 

"Trusses  and  Arches."  Analyzed  and  discussed  by 
graphical  methods  by  Chas.  E.  Greene,  professor  of 
civil  engineering,  University  of  Michigan.  In  three  parts. 

Part  I. — "Roof  Trusses."  Diagrams  for  steady  load, 
snow  and  wind.  New  revised  edition  (1890).  8vo, 
cloth  $1.25 

"This  new  edition  of  the  first  part  of  Prof.  Greene's  work  on 
Graphical  Statics  contains  some  considerable  additions,  modifica- 
tions and  rearrangements  of  material,  tending  to  further  improve 
the  work,  our  favorable  opinion  of  which  is  sufficiently  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  the  substance  of  the  work  is  a  reprint  of  a 
series  of  articles  originally  contributed  to  this  journal." — En- 
gineering News. 

Part  II. — "Bridge  Trusses."  Single,  continuous  and 
draw  spans;  single  and  multiple  systems;  straight  and 
inclined  chords.  New  revised  edition  (1891).  8vo, 
cloth  $2.50 


630  APPENDIX  K. 

Part  III. — "Arches  in  Wood,  Iron  and  Stone."  For 
roofs,  bridges  and  wall  openings;  arched  ribs  and  braced 
arches;  stresses  from  wind  and  change  of  temperature. 
Third  edition.  8vo,  cloth $2.50 

"So  eminently  simple  as  to  be  exactly  fitted  for  working 
Architects  and  Builders." — Prof.  GEO.  L.  VOSE. 

"We  can  recommend  Prof.  Greene's  book  as  particularly  adapted 
to  students." — Engineering  News. 

"An    excellent    little    manual    which    we    can   decidedly    recom- 
mend."— Engineering  (London). 
GODWIN.— Railroad  Engineer's  Field  Book. 

An  explorer's  guide,  especially  adapted  to  the  use  of  rail- 
road engineers  on  location  and  construction  and  the  needs 
of  the  explorer  in  making  exploratory  surveys.  By  H.  C. 
Godwin.  Second  edition.  Morocco  flap $2.50 

"I  have   read  with   considerable  care,   and  do  not  hesitate  to 

S renounce    it    few    superior    to    anything   now    published." — Prof. 
.    B.    JOHNSON,    Washington    Univ.,   Dept.    of   Engineering,    8t. 
Louis. 

HERMANN.— Steam  Shovels  and  Steam  Shovel  Work. 

E.  A.  Hermann,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.  Cloth,  Svo,  98  figures. 
Price $1.00 

HOWARD.— The  Transition  Curve  Field  Book. 

By  Conway  R.  Howard,  C.E.  Containing  full  instructions 
for  adjusting  and  locating  a  curve  nearly  identical  with 
the  cubic  parabola  in  transition  between  any  circular  rail- 
road curve  and  tangent.  Simplified  in  application  by  the 
aid  of  a  general  table,  and  illustrated  by  rules  and  ex- 
amples for  various  problems  of  location.  12mo,  morocco 
flap  $1.50 

"The  methods  indicated  in  this  little  work  for  locating  transi- 
tion curves  are  really  simple,  decidedly  simpler  than  some  others 
that  have  been  put  out,  and  the  results  good.  Therefore  it  will 
prove  a  useful  book  to  many  engineers." — Engineering  News. 

HOWARD,  C.  R. — Earthwork  Mensuration  on  the  Basis  of  the 
Prismoidal  Formulae. 

Containing  simple  and  labor-saving  method  of  obtaining 
prismoidal  contents  directly  from  end  areas.  Illustrated 
by  examples  and  accompanied  by  plain  rules  for  practical 
uses.  Illustrated.  8vo,  cloth  $1.50 

HOWE.— Retaining  Walls  for  Earth. 

The  theory  as  developed  by  Prof.  Jacob  J.  Weyrauch,  ex- 
panded and  supplemented  by  practical  examples,  with 
notes  on  later  investigations.  By  Malverd  A.  Howe,  C.E. 
Third  edition,  entirely  rewritten  and  enlarged  (1896). 

12mo,  cloth  $1.25 

"We  commend  this  little  volume  to  all  Engineers  of  Con- 
struction."— Industrial  Review. 

"An  addition  made  in  the  present  edition  is  a  chapter  on  the 
supporting  power  of  earth  in  the  case  of  foundations ;  another 
is  a  formula  for  determining  the  breadth  of  the  base  of  a  re- 
taining wall.  The  book  is  a  useful  one  both  for  students  and  for 
engineers  in  practice." — Railroad  and  Engineering  Journal. 


APPENDIX  K.  637 

HUDSON.—  Tables  for  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Ex- 
cavations and    Embankments   by  an    Improved    Method   of 
Diagonals  and  Side  Triangles. 

By  J.  R.  Hudson.     New  edition,  with  additional  tables. 
8vo,  cloth   ........................................  $1.00 

"These  tables  are   simple  and  accurate.     The  method  adopted 
is    illustrated   by   plain   diagrams,    and   the   tables    are    arranged 
for  nearly   every  possible   width  of  roadway  and  slope  and  cut- 
tings on  fills  from  zero  to  50  feet."  —  Engineering  News. 
HENCK,  JOHN  B.—  Field  Book  for  Railroad  Engineers. 
JOHNSON.  —  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying. 

Designed  for  the  use  of  surveyors  and  engineers  generally, 
but  especially  for  the  use  of  students  in  engineering.     By 
J.  B.  Johnson,  C.E.,  professor  of  civil  engineering,  Wash- 
ington University,  etc.,  etc.     Illustrated  by  upward  of  150 
engravings,with  folding  maps,  tables,  etc.,  etc.    Eleventh 
edition,  revised.     8vo,  cloth  ........................  $4.00 

"On  the  whole  this  is  the  best  treatise  on  Surveying  that  we 
know  of."  —  Railroad  Gazette. 

"Whatever   branch   of   work   the   Surveyor   is   in,   he   will    find 
this  book  valuable  and  exhaustive."  —  American  Engineer. 
JOHNSON.  —  Stadia  Reduction  Diagram. 

Sheet,  22^x28%  inches  ..............................  50c 

JOHNSON  —  BRYAN  —  TURNEAURE.  —  Theory    and     Practice 
In  the  Designing  of  Modern  Framed  Structures. 
Sixth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     4to,  cloth  ----  $10.00 

Chapter       Part  I--  ANALYTICAL.        Chapter    Part  II—  STRUCTURAL. 
I.  Definitions  and  Historical  Review.        XVI.  Styles  of  .Structures  .and 


III.  Roof  Trusses.  XVIII.  Details  of  Joints  and  Con- 

IV.  Bridge    Trusses    with    Uniform  nections. 

Loads.  XIX.  Plate  Girders, 

V.  Bridge  Trusses  with  Wheel  Loads.         XX.  The  Complete  Design  of  a 
VI.  Conventional  Methods  of  Treatitg  mR°°n  Truf;    ~     ,       ' 

Train  Loads.  XXL  Tne  Complete  Design  of  a 

VII.  Lateral  Truss  Systems.  y™   JSSrSKjStoKalMi  of  a 

VIII.  Beams  (including  Continuous  Gir-     XXIL  TH?ghw™?  Br1d?f 

ders).  XXIII.  The   Detail   Design   of    a 

IX.  Columns  (including  a  New  For-  Howe  Truss. 

mula,)  XXIV.  The    Detail    Design  of    a 

X.  Combined    Direct    and    Bending  Draw  Bridge. 

Stresses.  XXV.  Elevated    Railway   Struc- 

XI.  Suspension  Bridges.  tures. 

-X-TT   T>riw  Rridees  XXVI.  Timber  and  Iron  Trestles. 

^JJ-  ??,„;,,  XXVII.  Esthetic  Bridge  Designing. 

XIII.  Cantilever  Bridges.  XXVIII.  Iron  and  Steel  Tall  Build- 

XIV.  Elastic  Arch  Bridges.  ing  Construction. 

XV.  Deflection  of  Framed  Structures    XXIX  Iron  and  Steel  Mill  Build- 
and    Distribution    of    Stresses  ing  Construction. 

Over  Redundant  Members. 

(A.  The  Use  of  Soft  Steel  in  Bridges. 
B.  Processes  in  the  Manufacture  and  in  the  Inspection  of 
Iron  and  Steel  Structures. 
C.  American  Methods  of  Erection  of  Bridges  and  Struc- 
tures. 


638  APPENDIX  K. 

KINDELAN.— The  Trackman's  Helper. 

Second  edition.  A  practical  guide  to  the  section  foreman. 
By  J.  Kindelan,  Headmaster,  Mitchell,  S.  D.  Price.  .$1.50 

MERRIMAN— BROOKS.— Hand-Book  for  Surveyors. 

A  pocket-book  for  the  classroom  and  the  field,  including 
fundamental  principles,  land  surveying,  leveling,  triangu- 
lation,  and  topographic  surveying,  with  tables.  By  Profs. 
Mansfield  Merriman  and  John  B.  Brooks,  C.E.  Pocket- 
book  form.  12mo,  morocco $2.00 

"In  Issuing  this  pocket-book  the  authors  undoubtedly  meet  a 
demand.  Works  on  surveying  were  plentiful  enough,  but  none 
were  In  shape  for  handy  use  in  the  field.  As  arranged,  this  work 
can  be  used  in  the  class-rooms  of  technical  schools  as  well  as  by 
surveyors  In  the  field.  .  .  .  The  methods  of  testing  and 
comparing  Instruments  are  given  more  fully  than  usual  in  work's 
of  this  character.—  Engineering  News. 

MERRIMAN— JACOBY.— A  Text-Book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges. 

Designed  for  classes  in  technical  schools  and  for  the  use 
of  engineers.  By  Prof.  Mansfield  Merriman,  of  Lehigh 
University,  and  Prof.  Henry  S.  Jacoby,  of  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. In  four  parts. 

Part  I. — "Stresses  in  Simple  Trusses."  Fourth  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged  with  three  new  chapters.  8vo, 
cloth $2.50 

"The  author  gives  the  most  modern  practice  In  determining 
the  stresses  due  to  moving  loads,  taking  actual  typical  locomotive 
wheel  loads,  and  reproduces  the  Phoenix  Bridge  Co.'s  diagram 
for  tabulating  wheel  movements.  The  whole  treatment  Is  concise 
and  very  clear  and  elegant." — Railroad  Gazette. 

Part  II.— "Graphic  Statics."  Third  edition,  enlarged. 
With  five  folding  plates.  8vo,  cloth $2.50 

"The  plan  of  this  book  Is  simple  and  easily  understood ;  and 
aa  the  treatment  of  all  problems  is  graphical,  mathematics  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  enter  into  its  composition.  Judging  from 
our  own  correspondence,  it  Is  a  work  for  which  there  is  a  de- 
cided demand  outside  of  technical  schools." — Engineering  Newa. 

Part  III. — "Bridge  Design."  A  manual  for  students  and 
for  bridge  draughtsmen.  Second  edition.  8vo,  cloth. $2. 50 

"It  Is  a  most  useful  handbook  for  the  designer,  and  the  photo- 
graphic reproductions  of  working  drawings  in  the  plates  leave 
nothing  to  be  desired  on  the  score  of  completeness  and  clear- 
ness. ...  It  can  be  read  with  pleasure  and  profit  by  every 
engineer  Interested  in  bridge  work." — Indian  Engineering. 

"The  general  processes  treated  by  Professors  Merriman  and 
Jacoby  have  been  fairly  well  written  up  before,  but  they  cer- 
tainly have  not  been  so  extensively  elaborated  either  as  to  va- 
riety of  application  or  as  to  faithful  and  painstaking  detail." — 
Engineering  Record. 

Part  IV. — "Cantilever,  Continuous,  Draw,  Suspension 
and  Arch  Bridges."  March,  1898.  8vo,  cloth $2.50 

CONTENTS  :  Continuous  Bridges,  Draw  Bridges,  Cantilever 
Bridges,  Suspension  Bridges,  Three-Hinged  Arches,  Two-Hinged 
Arches,  Arches  without  Hinges. 


APPENDIX  K.  639 

MERRILL,  COL.  WM.   E.f   U.  S.  A.— Iron  Truss   Bridge*  for 
Railroads. 

The  method  of  calculating  strains  in  trusses,  with  a  care- 
ful comparison  of  the  most  prominent  trusses,  in  refer- 
ence to  economy  in  combination,  etc.  Illustrated.  4to, 
cloth.  Fourth  edition $5.00 

MORISON.— The  Memphis  Bridge. 

By  George  S.  Morison.     Oblong  4to $10.00 

MERRIMAN. — Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy. 

By  Mansfield  Merriman,  professor  of  C.E.  in  Lehigh  Uni- 
versity. Cloth,  9x6  inches;  pp.  261;  illustrated $2.50 

NAGLE. — A  Field  Manual  for  Railroad  Engineers. 

By  J.  C.  Nagle,  professor  of  civil  engineering  in  the  A. 
and  M.  College  of  Texas.  12mo,  morocco $3.00 

CONTENTS  :  Reconnoissance ;  Preliminary  Surveys ;  Loca- 
tion ;  Transition-Curves ;  Frogs  and  Switches ;  Construction ; 
Tables. 

O8BORN. — Osborn's  Specifications. 

General  specifications  for  railway  bridges.  General  spec- 
ifications for  bridge  substructure.  Specifications  for 
metal  highway  bridge  superstructure.  Paper,  8x12  inches. 
Price  of  each, 25c 

PAINE.— The  New  Roadmaster's  Assistant  (1898  Edition). 
By  George  H.  Paine.  For  twenty-five  years  "The  Road- 
master's  Assistant,"  by  Huntington  and  Latimer,  has  been 
known  throughout  the  world.  Mr.  Paine's  new  book  is  its 
worthy  successor.  About  300  engravings,  practical  and  up 
to  date  in  every  respect.  It  is  a  necessary  tool  to  every 
roadmaster  and  section  foreman.  Price $1.50 

PATTON. — Practical    Treatise   on    Foundations. 

By  W.  M.  Patton,  C.E.  Twenty-one  full-page  plates,  illus- 
trated, 400  pages.  8vo,  cloth $5.00 

CONTENTS  :  Foundation  Beds,  Foundations,  Building  Stone, 
Quarrying,  Masonry,  Arches,  Keystone,  Brick,  Box  Culverts,  Ce- 
ment, M9rtar,  Sand,  Stability  of  Piers,  Arch  Culverts,  Cost  of 
Work,  Dimensions  of  Piers,  Timber  Foundations,  Coffer  Dams, 
Open  Caisson,  Soundings,  Borings,  Frame  Trestles,  Timber  Piers, 
Means  of  Preserving  Timber  Joints  and  Fastenings,  Timber 
Piles,  Cost  of  Timber  Trestles,  Embankment  of  Earth  on  Swamps, 
Deep  Foundations,  The  Open  Crib,  The  Pneumatic  Caisson,  Con- 
struction of  Pneumatic  Caissons,  Caisson  Sinking.  Combined 
Open  Crib  and  Pneumatic  Caisson,  All-Iron  Piers,  Location  of 
Piers.  The  Poetsch  Freezing  Process,  Quicksand,  Foundations 
for  High  Buildings. 

PLYMPTON,  PROF.  GEO.  W.— The    Aneroid    Barometer;    It* 
Construction  and  Use. 

Compiled  from  several  sources.  Fourth  edition.  16mo, 
boards,  illustrated,  50  cents;  morocco $1.00 


640  APPENDIX  K. 

PAUL,  H. — Railway  Surveys  and   Resurveys. 

Pamphlet,  6x9  inches,  13  pages.      Price 25c 

REED. — Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching,  Including  Pho- 
tography applied  to  Surveying. 

Illustrated  with  plates,  colored  and  plain.  By  Lieut.  Hen- 
ry A.  Reed.  Fourth  edition.  4to,  cloth $5.00 

"This  Is  decidedly  the  best  work  of  its  class  that  we  have 
ever  met  with." — Engineering  News. 

"An  expert  at  our  elbow  says  that  this  Is  one  of  the  best 
works  on  the  subject  in  the  English  or  any  other  language." — 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 

"We  can  commend  without  reservation  Lt.  Reed's  work." — 
Franklin  Institute. 

SEARLES.— Field  Engineering. 

A  hand-book  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  railway  survey- 
ing, location  and  construction,  designed  for  classroom, 
field  and  office  use,  and  containing  a  large  number  of  use- 
ful tables,  original  an£  selected.  By  Win.  H.  Searles, 
C.B.,  late  professor  of  geodesy  at  Ren.  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, Troy.  This  volume  contains  many  short  and  unique 
methods  of  laying  out,  locating  and  constructing  com- 
pound curves,  side  tracks  and  railroad  lines  generally. 
It  is  also  intended  as  a  text-book  for  scientific  schools. 
Pocket  book  form.  Sixteenth  edition.  12mo,  morocco..$3.00 

"The  book  is  admirable.  The  Internal  arrangements  and  an- 
pearance  are  excellent.  It  is  an  easy  work  to  refer  to  and  la 
plain  and  clear.  There  is  no  useless  lumber  in  it.  Every  sen- 
tence belongs  there." — Prof.  DAVIS,  University  of  Michigan. 

SEARLES.— The  Railroad  Spiral. 

The  theory  of  the  compound  transition  curve  reduced  to 
practical  formulae  and  rules  for  application  in  field  work, 
with  complete  tables  of  deflections  and  ordinates  for  500 
spirals.  By  Wm.  H.  Searles,  C.E.,  author  of  "Field  Engi- 
neering," member  of  Amer.  Soc.  of  C.  E.  Fifth  Edition. 
Pocket-book  form.  Price  $1.50 

"It  should  have  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  Civil  Engineer 
in  the  world." — Railway  Age. 

SHUNK,  W.  F.— The  Field  Engineer. 

A  handy  book  of  practice  in  the  survey,  location  and 
track  work  of  railroads,  containing  a  large  collection  of 
rules  and  tables,  original  and  selected,  applicable  to  both 
the  standard  and  narrow  gauge,  and  prepared  with  special 
reference  to  the  wants  of  the  young  engineer.  Tenth  edi- 
tion. Revised  and  enlarged.  12mo,  morocco,  tucks.  .$2.50 

SIMMS,  W.  F.— Practical  Tunneling. 

Fourth  edition,  revised  and  greatly  extended.  With  addi- 
tional chapters  illustrating  recent  practice  by  D.  Kinnear 
Clark.  With  thirty-six  plates  and  other  illustrations.  Im- 
perial 8vo,  cloth  $12.00 


APPENDIX  K.  641 

SIMMS,  F.  W. — A  Treatise  on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Leveling. 

Showing  its  application  to  purposes  of  railway  engineer- 
ing and  the  construction  of  roads,  etc.  Revised  and  cor- 
rected, with  the  addition  of  Mr.  Laws'  practical  examples 
for  setting  out  railway  curves.  Illustrated.  8vo,  cloth.  .$2.50 

SMITH — McMILLAN. — Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing. 
By  Lieut.  R.  S.  Smith,  U.  S.  A.,  late  assistant  professor  of 
drawing  in  U.  S.  Military  Academy.  Revised  and  enlarged 
by  Chas.  McMillan,  C.E.,  professor  of  civil  engineering, 
college  of  New  Jersey.  With  twelve  folding  plates,  newly 
made  (three  colored),  and  new  wood  engravings.  Third 
edition,  8vo,  cloth $2.50 

"This  is  a  delightfully  simple  and  practical  work." — Scientific 
American. 

"The  scope  of  this  work  and  the  author's  mode  of  treatment 
rise  far  beyond  the  ordinary  handbooks  of  the  same  class."— London 
Engineering. 

SPALDING. — Hydraulic  Cement;   Its  Properties,  Testing  and 
Use. 

By  Frederick  P.  Spalding,  assistant  professor  of  civil  engi- 
neering at  Cornell  University;  member  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

CONTENTS  :  Hydraulic  Lime ;  Classifications  and  Constitution 
of  Cement;  The  Setting  and  Hardening  of  Cement;  Its  Sound- 
ness; Methods  of  Testing  Cement;  Tests  for  the  Strength  of 
Mortar ;  Tests  for  Soundness ;  Special  Tests ;  Cement  Mortar 
and  Concrete ;  Appendix,  containing  Specifications  for  the  Re- 
ception of  Cement. 

"For  those  who  wish  to  acquire  a  working  knowledge  of  cement 
and  its  treatment,  and  for  those  who  desire  to  have  in  con- 
venient form  a  general  handbook  on  this  subject,  we  can  recom- 
mend this  little  book  as  worthy." — Engineering  Record. 

TORREY. — Switch  Layouts  and  Curve  Easements. 

By  A.  Torrey,  Prin.  Asst.  Eng.,  Michigan  Central  railroad. 
One  hundred  and  twelve  diagrams,  showing  graphically 
and  by  figures  the  leads,  offsets  and  all  dimensions  for 
laying  out  switches  for  frogs  of  all  numbers  and  for  all 
combinations  in  common  use,  for  both  split  and  stub 
switches.  The  second  part  of  the  manual  ("Curve  Ease- 
ments") gives  exact  and  easily  used  instructions  and 
data  for  easing  transitions  from  tangent  to  curve,  or  be- 
tween curves  of  different  radii.  No  similar  publication 
has  ever  before  been  made.  It  is  a  practical  and  neces- 
sary manual  for  track  men.  Price $1.00 

TRATMAN.— Railway  Track  and  Track  Work. 

By  E.  E.  Russell  Tratman,  Assoc.  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.;  asso- 

41    Vol.  13 


642  APPENDIX  K. 

ciate  editor  of  Engineering  News.  400  pages;  over  200 

illustrations.  Price  $3.00 

SYNOPSIS  OP  CONTENTS. 

PART  I. — TRACK:  Roadbed  —  Ballast  —  Ties — Metal  Ties — 
Rails — Joints — Fastenings — Frogs  and  Switches — Fences — Cross- 
ings— Track  Signs — Track  Tanks — Mail  Cranes  and  Car  Bump- 
ers— Section  Houses — Sidetracks — Yards  and  Terminals — Track 
Tools  and  Supplies. 

PART  II. — TRACK  WORK  :  Organization — Tracklaying — Ballast- 
ing— Ditching — Maintenance  Work  (Surfacing,  Lining,  Relaying 
Rails  and  Ties,  Policing,  etc.) — Grades  and  .Curves — Switch 
Work — Track  Inspection — Bridge  Department  —  Snow — Wreck- 
ing and  Emergency  Work — Records  and  Accounts. 

TRAUTWINE.— Civil   Engineer's  Pocketbook. 

Of  mensuration,  trigonometry,  surveying,  hydraulics,  hy- 
drostatics, instruments  and  their  adjustments,  strength  of 
materials,  masonry,  principles  of  wooden  and  iron  roof 
and  bridge  trusses,  stone  bridges  and  culverts,  trestles, 
pillars,  suspension  bridges,  dams,  railroads,  turnouts,  turn- 
ing platforms,  water  stations,  cost  of  earthwork,  founda- 
tions, retaining  walls,  etc.  In  addition  to  which  the  elu- 
cidation of  certain  important  principles  of  construction  is 
made  in  a  more  simple  manner  than  heretofore.  By  J.  C. 
Trautwine,  C.E.  12mo,  morocco  flaps,  gilt  edges.  Seven- 
teenth edition,  fiftieth  thousand,  revised  and  enlarged, 
with  new  illustrations.  By  J.  C.  Trautwine,  Jr.,  C.E. . $5.00 
"It  is  the  best  Civil  Engineers'  Pocketbook  in  existence." — 
American  Engineer. 

TRAUTWINE.— The    Field    Practice   of    Laying   Out   Circular 
Curves  for  Railroads. 

By  J.  C.  Trautwine,  civil  engineer.     Thirteenth  edition,  re- 
vised by  J.  C.  Trautwine,  Jr.    12mo,  limp  morocco $2.50 

"Probably  the  most  complete  and  perfect  treatise  on  the  single 
subject  of  Railroad  Curves  that  is  published  in  the  English  lan- 
guage."— Engineering  News. 

TRAUTWINE.— A  Method  of  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents 
of  Excavations  and  Embankments  by  the  Aid  of  Diagrams. 
Together  with  directions  for  estimating  the  cost  of  earth- 
work. By  John  C.  Trautwine,  C.E.  Ninth  edition,  re- 
vised and  enlarged  by  John  C.  Trautwine,  Jr.  8vo, 
doth  $2.00 

TRAUTWINE.— Cross-Section  Sheet. 

To  be  used  with  "Trautwine's  Excavations."    Sheet  form. 
Price   25c 

WELLINGTON,  A.  M.— Piles  and  Pile  Driving. 

Paper,  4^x7  inches,  150  pages.    Illustrated J  1.00 


APPENDIX  K  643 

WELLINGTON.— The    Economic   Theory   of  the    Location   of 
Railways. 

An  analysis  of  the  conditions  controlling  the  laying  out  of 
railways  to  effect  the  most  judicious  expenditure  of  cap- 
ital. By  Arthur  M.  Wellington.  Fifth  edition.  8vo.  .$5.00 
"Mr.  Wellington  has  done  great  service  to  the  Railroad  pro- 
fession ;  more  particularly  to  Engineers,  Managers,  and  Superin- 
tendents, by  bringing  together  in  a  single  volume  such  a  mass 
of  valuable  matter.  It  should  be  in  every  Railway  Library." — 
Railway  Age. 

WELLINGTON.— Excavation  and  Embankments. 

Price $4.00 

WHIPPLE,   S.,  C.E.— An    Elementary  and   Practical   Treatise 
on  Bridge  Building. 
8vo,  cloth.     Price   $4.00 

WRIGHT. — The  Designing  of  Draw  Spans. 

Comprising  the  calculation  of  stresses,  sections  required, 
determination  of  the  most  efficient  details  and  the  design- 
ing of  operating  machinery.  With  numerous  examples 
from  existing  bridges.  By  Charles  H.  Wright,  Edgemoor 
Bridge  works.  8vo,  cloth. 

PART  FIRST. — Part  first  deals  particularly  with  Plate  Girder 
Draws;  gives  tables  of  strength  of  Shafts,  Gears,  etc.  Considers 
Deflection  under  various  conditions  of  loading  and  for  varying 
section  of  girder ;  Treats  of  Friction,  Time  of  Operating  and 
Turning,  Latching  and  Wedging  arrangements,  etc.  Much  of 
the  data  given  applies  equally  well  to  other  types  of  Draw  Spans. 

WINSLOW,  A.— D.  Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series. 

No.  77.  "Stadia  Surveying."  The  theory  of  stadia  meas- 
urements. By  Arthur  Winslow.  8mo 50c 


APPENDIX  L. 

BRIDGES  AND  BUILDINGS RULES,  TABLES  AND  DATA, 

DETAILED  RULES  GOVERNING  BRIDGES 
AND  CULVERTS.* 

BRIDGES  AND  CULVERTS. 

Inspection. — The  division  engineers  will  make  occasional 
examinations  of  the  condition  of  all  important  bridges  and 
culverts.  In  an  emergency  they  will,  on  their  own  author- 
ity, report  such  repairs  as  they  may  deem  necessary  for  safety, 
to  the  division  superintendent  for  immediate  attention.  In 
other  cases  they  will  make  their  reports  to  the  chief  engineer, 
who  will  decide  on  the  amount  and  character  of  the  work  to 
be  done. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  by  division  engineers  and  super- 
visors of  bridges  and  buildings,  to  whom  the  security  of  struct- 
ures is  intrusted,  to  make  such  inspections  so  thorough  and 
the  records  thereof  so  complete  as  to  convey  definite  and  pre- 
cise knowledge  of  the  condition  of  each  and  every  structure  at 
the  time  of  the  last  inspection. 

There  will  be  two  regular  inspections  each  year,  as  follows: 

1.  In  January,  by  the  supervisor  of  bridges  for  each  division 
of  all  truss  and  large  trestle  bridges. 

2.  In  September,  by  the  division  engineers  and  supervisors 
of  bridges,  of  all  bridges,  culverts,  waterways,  etc. 

In  addition  the  supervisors  of  bridges  must  at  all  times 
make  such  other  inspections  as  may  be  necessary  to  insure 
safety. 

The  September  inspection  must  be  made  with  special  refer- 
ence to  obtaining  information  for  estimating  the  cost  of  re- 
newals and  repairs,  and  for  the  material  required  for  the 
ensuing  year. 

*Adopted    and    in   force   on   the   Northern   Pacific    Railway. 

(644) 


APPENDIX  L.  645 

The  supervisors  of  bridges  will  forward  the  report  of  these 
inspections,  with  an  impression  copy  of  the  same,  to  the 
division  superintendent  for  approval.  Division  superintend- 
ents will  forward  both  copies  to  the  division  engineer. 

The  supervisor  of  bridges  will  make  such  further  inspec- 
tions as  he  finds  necessary  to  keep  thoroughly  posted  as  to 
the  conditions  and  safety  of  all  bridges  and  culverts  on  his 
division. 

Division  superintendents  will  arrange  to  obtain  the  record 
of  extreme  high  water  at  the  time  of  each  flood,  or  extraordi- 
nary freshet,  at  all  bridges,  culverts  and  openings. 

Section  foremen  should  be  instructed  to  go  over  their  sec- 
tions at  such  times  and  take  the  measurement  from  top  of  tie 
to  the  extreme  high-water  mark  and  report  such  measure- 
ments, giving  the  number  of  the  bridge  or  opening,  to  the 
division  superintendent. 

Division  superintendents  will  forward  this  information  to 
the  division  engineers,  who  will  retain  copy  and  forward  the 
information  to  the  office  of  the  chief  engineer  for  record. 

Supervisors  of  bridges  will  furnish  the  division  superin- 
tendent monthly  reports  of  all  repairs  and  renewals  of  bridges 
and  culverts  executed  during  the  month.  These  reports  will 
be  forwarded  to  the  division  engineer,  who  will  check  same 
against  the  inspection  requirements,  for  the  purpose  of  insur- 
ing compliance  with  such  requirements. 

At  the  completion  of  the  work  the  supervisors  of  bridges 
will  forward  a  report  to  the  division  superintendent,  showing 
all  changes  in  the  class  of  structure,  details  of  construction 
and  length,  height  and  position  of  structures;  also  the  cost 
of  labor  and  material  expended.  This  report  will  be  forwarded 
to  the  division  engineer,  who,  after  recording  same,  will  send 
it  to  the  chief  engineer  for  final  record. 

Following  the  September  inspection,  estimates  of  the  cost 
of  repairs,  renewals  and  replacements  recommended  for  the 
ensuing  year  will  be  prepared  by  the  division  supervisors  and 
division  engineers,  which  will  be  tabulated  and  forwarded 
through  the  office  of  the  chief  engineer. 

The  character  and  extent  of  renewals  and  improvements 
will  be  determined  from  this  report.  Descriptions  and  esti- 


646  APPENDIX  L. 

mates  will  be  given  for  permanent  -structures,  wherever  same 
appear  desirable  or  economical. 

This  report  will  show  the  cost  of  necessary  repairs  recom- 
mended for  the  ensuing  year;  the  average  annual  cost  of 
such  repairs;  the  total  cost  of  the  structure  upon  which  re- 
pairs are  recommended,  and  also  the  total  cost  and  annual 
interest  upon  permanent  structures  when  such  structures 
are  recommended. 

All  changes,  additions  or  expensive  renewals  of  bridges,  cul- 
verts or  other  important  structures  shall  be  made  only  upon 
the  properly  approved  plans  and  estimates  of  the  chief  engi- 
neer, who  will  make  contracts  for  and  superintend  the  work. 

Instruction  to  Inspectors. — Note-books  of  inspection  must 
be  filled  out  at  the  structure  after  a  careful  examination  has 
been  made  of  each  of  the  points  itemized  in  the  blanks,  using, 
in  cases  where  there  are  a  number  of  spans  in  which  defects 
are  observed,  a  properly  noted  column  for  each  span.  When 
the  spans  are  all  in  good  condition  one  column  only  need  be 
%used,  but  the  number  of  spans  should  be  noted. 

Designate  the  separate  spans  of  a  bridge  by  numbering 
them  in  the  direction  of  the  bridge  numbers  on  the  division, 
and  the  separate  bents  or  piers  in  same  manner,  com*- 
mencing  with  abutment,  bank-bent  or  sill  as  number  one. 
Designate  the  truss  as  the  right  or  left,  locating  points  on  it 
by  numbering  the  panels  in  the  same  direction  as  the  spans 
are  numbered. 

When  wooden  structures  are  four  years  old,  such  members 
as  by  their  position  are  particularly  liable  to  decay  must  be 
tested  by  boring,  the  holes  to  be  plugged  up  as  soon  as  the 
inspection  is  completed. 

When  making  regular  inspections  the  inspectors  will  take  a 
statement  of  the  results  of  the  last  examination  relative  to 
such  structures  as  required  attention  at  that  time,  and  in  re- 
porting on  these  structures,  special  notes  must  be  made  as 
to  whether  the  repairs  and  recommendations  of  the  previous 
examinations  have  been  fully  carried  out  or  not,and  whether 
the  work  is  in  accordance  with  the  standard  plans. 

Instructions  Regarding  Inspection  Reports. —  (Numbers  and 
directions  in  these  instructions  correspond  with  numbers  and 
abbreviations  on  report  blanks.) 


APPENDIX  L.  647 

1.  Does   waterway   require   straightening,   cleaning  out   or 
enlarging  above  or  below  structure?     Does  structure  afford 
ample  waterway?     Is  rip  rap  needed  to  maintain  channel  or 
protect  roadway? 

2.  Note  line  and  surface,  also  condition  of  rails,  joints  and 
fastenings   on    bridge   and    approaches.     See    that   rails    are 
braced   on   curves   where  necessary,   and  that  track  on   ap- 
proaches is  firmly  bedded,  avoiding  shock  or  jolt  to  train  as  it 
passes  on  to  bridge. 

3.  Note    any   rotten,    split    or    otherwise    defective    bridge 
ties,  giving  number,  size  and  kind. 

4.  See  if  guard  rails  are  in  line  and  bolted  or  spiked  down 
tight. 

5.  Note   condition   of   caps    and    stringers,    particularly   at 
points  where  they  bear  against  other  members. 

6.  Note  if  plumb  and  batter  posts  are  crooked,  split  or  de- 
cayed, and  if  bents  stand  plumb. 

7.  See  if  trestle  towers  or  bents  are  properly  sway-braced, 
and    all   braces    longitudinal   and   transverse    are   drawn    up 
tight  and  have  sufficient  bolts  or  spikes  to  hold  them  properly. 

8.  Note  particularly  the  condition  of  piles  where  they  enter 
the  ground  or  water.     See  that  they  stand  properly. 

9.  Examine  each  pier  and  abutment  as  to  joints,  settlement, 
imperfect  stones,  cracks  or  other  defects;  note  if  work  needs 
pointing  up,   or   if  cracks   have   opened   since   last   pointed; 
make  such  measurements  as  will  locate  position  of  cracks,  and 
note  on  sketch  on  back  of  report  blank.     Condition  of  rip  rap, 
if  any.     Is  rip  rap  needed   to    prevent    undermining?     How 
much?     Condition  of  pedestal  stones,  and  whether  bridge  seat 
is  clean  and  water  drained  off. 

10.  Note  condition  of  culvert  and  retaining  walls.     See  if 
they  are  yielding  by  settlement  or  bulging  from  the  pressure 
of  the  embankment. 

11.  Condition   of  ring,  or   covering  stone,   of  box  pr  arch 
culverts. 

12.  Note  condition  of  paving  and  rip  rap,  and  that  same  is 
so  placed  that  it  cannot  be  undermined  by  washing. 

13.  Does  pipe  drain  need  head  or  tail  wall  to  protect  em- 
bankment from  washing?    And  does  it  clear  itself  of  water? 


648  APPENDIX  L. 

14.  Does  timber  box  need  to  be  replaced  with  masonry,  or 
culvert  pipe?     If  so,  give  dimensions  required  to  give  ample 
waterway,  and  give  height  from  bottom  of  stream  to  rail. 

15.  See  if  bed  plates  and  rollers  are  clean,  and  if  the  latter 
stand  so  as  to  move  squarely  back  and  forth  with  the  truss. 
See  if  pedestal  takes  an  even  bearing  on  rollers.     Examine 
anchor  bolts. 

16.  Observe  particularly  the  condition  of  wall  plates  where 
bolster  rests  upon  them.     Note  any  appearance  of  crushing 
or  decay. 

17.  Note  condition  of  bolsters  and  corbels.     See  if  holes  are 
bored  through  them  where   they  cover  the  spaces  between 
chord  sticks,  to  prevent  the  collection  of  water,  and  if  there 
is  any  indication  of  decay  where  they  are  in  contact  with 
chord. 

18.  Angle  blocks  and  all  cast-iron  members  such  as  chord 
boxes,  post  shoes,  etc.,  must  be  examined  for  cracks  and  for 
any  indication  of  displacement  by  reason   of  daps   splitting 
or  timber  crushing.     A  hole  of  ^-inch  in  diameter,  if  drilled 
at  the  end  of  the  crack,  will  frequently  stop  its  extending 
farther. 

19.  Note  particularly  any  appearance  of  opening  of  bottom 
chord   joints.     Wooden   bridges   over   four   years   old   should 
have  gauge  blocks  at  all  joints  in  the  middle  half  of  the  span, 
iflade  by  fastening  two  planed  and  squared  blocks  1x2  inches, 
6  inches  long,  to  the  chord  sticks  with  screws,  and  scribing  a 
fine   line  across  both.     Any  movement   of  joints   should   be 
noted,  giving  location  and  amount,  scribing  a  new  line  from 
the  old  one  on  the  outside  block  across  the  inside  block.     See 
if  clamp  daps  are  shearing. 

20.  See  that  all  chord  and  packing  bolts  are  tight.     Nuts 
on   all  bolts   through   guard   rails,   ties,    stringers   and   floor 
beams  must  be  secured  in  place  by  burring  the  thread  of  the 
bolt  at  two  or  three  places  with  a  center  punch  or  cape  chisel. 

21.  Note  any  signs  of  decay  or  crushing  in  packing  blocks, 
and  see  that  clamps  and  keys  are  in  proper  condition. 

22.  See  if   gib   plates   are   distorted   or   crushing  into   the 
chords;  if  they  are,  give  their  location  and  dimensions,  num- 
ber, size  and  spacing  of  rods  passing  through  them.     Give 
size  of  rods  over  threads. 


APPENDIX  L.  649 

23.  Note  condition  of  sides  and  roof  of  covered  bridges,  or 
of  chord  and  end  post  covering. 

24.  Notice  particularly  the  connections  between  stringers 
and  floor  beams;   see  that  connecting  angles  are  not  split, 
either  in  the  angle  or  through  in  the  line  of  the  rivet  holes. 
For  wooden  stringers,  note  condition  as  to  soundness   and 
bearings. 

25.  Notice  particularly  the  connections  between  floor  beams 
and  trusses  for  evidence  of  imperfect  bearing,  or  splitting 
of  connecting  angles.     If  suspended,   notice   if  they  are  up 
tight  against  the  post  feet  or  free  to  move. 

26.  Test  equality  of  tension  in  tie  bars  by  springing  them. 
Look  for  any  signs  of  distortion  or  crookedness  in  bars  of 
end    panels    of    bottom    chords.     Howe    truss    rods,    counter 
lateral  and  vibration  rods  must  never  be  allowed  to  hang 
loose.     They  must  not  be  adjusted  while  a  load  is  on  the 
bridge.     They  should  be  tightened  enough  to  give  close  and 
even  bearings,  but  must  not  be  overstrained,  as  unnecessary 
strains  are  put  on  compression  members  if  too  much  power 
is  used  in  adjusting  tension  members.     See  that  the  center 
line  of  all  tension  members  is  the  same  as  the  line  of  strain. 

27.  Examine  carefully,  especially  at  the  joints. 

28.  See  if  posts,  lateral  struts  and  top  chords  are  straight 
and  free  from  twists.     On  wooden  bridges,  see  if  braces  are  up 
in  place,  taking  a  square  bearing  at  ends,  and  note  if  any 
warping  is  evident.     Note  their  condition  as  to  soundness. 

29.  Examine  all  lateral  connections,  and   see  that  lateral 
tension    members    are    straight.     Examine    bracing    in    iron 
trestles. 

30.  Make   particular   examination   of    all   hangers,    testing 
each  nut  to  see  that  it  is  tight.    A  streak  of  white  paint  drawn 
across  nut  and  bearing  will  indicate  any  movement.     These 
nuts  should  be  screwed  up  tight  and  secured  by  burring  the 
thread  of  bolt  and  nut  at  two  or  three  points  with  a  center 
punch  or  cape  chisel. 

31.  Note  any  pins  which  indicate  the  movement  of  any  of 
the  members  coupling  on  them,  or  that  have  loose  nuts.    All 
pins  and  nuts  should  have  a  streak  of  white  paint  across  nut 
and  pin  end. 


650  APPENDIX  L. 

32.  All  field  driven  rivets  in  floor  beams  and  stringer  con- 
nections should  be  lightly  sounded  to  see  that  they  are  tight. 
Also   lateral   connection  rivets   in   riveted   trusses,    and   any 
intersection  or  other  rivets  which  indicate  by  rust  streaks, 
or  otherwise,  that  there  is  movement  at  that  point. 

33.  Note  if  there  are  any  members,  such  as  closed  columns, 
pedestals,  etc.,  which  catch  and  retain  water  by  reason  of  not 
having  proper  drain  holes. 

34.  Note  carefully  the  line  of  each  truss  by  the  top  chord 
and  by  points  on  the  floor  beams  equidistant  from  the  center 
of  the  posts.     Also  note  the  camber  by  the  top  and  bottom 
chords,  whether  it  is  true  and  uniform  or  irregular. 

35.  Look   for   loose   rods,   hangers,    loose   braces,   unequal- 
sized  timbers  and  other  defects  which  require  adjusting  in 
order  that  each  of  the  different  parts  may  have  proper  bear- 
ings and  carry  its  proper  part  of  the  load. 

36.  Note  any  undue  vibration  of  the  structure  under  live 
load. 

37.  Note  excessive  deflection  of  the   structure  under  live 
load,   seeing  if  the   two   trusses   have   the   same   deflection. 

38.  See  if  any  rust  spots   are  apparent  under   the   paint. 
Note  if  structure  needs  repainting.     Iron  bridge  work  should 
be  scraped  and  repainted  as  often  as  necessary  to  preserve 
from  rusting. 

39.  Note  such  wooden  structures  as  require  barrels  to  add 
to  their  safety,  giving  number  required.     State  condition  of 
such  barrels  as  may  be  in  position.     On  all  bridges  of  such 
magnitude  as  to  require  a  watchman,  there  should  be  a  foot 
plank  between  the  rails  securely  fastened  to  the  ties  to  facil- 
itate crossing  the  bridge  quickly  in  emergencies,  such  as  fire 
or  danger  to  trains.     Note  if  ladders,  either  fixed  or  portable, 
are  required  for  the  safety  of  the  structure  or  to  facilitate 
inspection. 

40.  See  if  material,  driftwood,  weeds,  grass  or  other  rubbish 
is  properly  removed  and  burned,  or  otherwise  disposed  of. 

List  of  abbreviations  for  class  of  structures: 

W.  B.— Wooden  or  timber  box  cul-       P.  B.— Pile  bridge. 

,     vert.  P.  a— Pile  culvert. 

S.  B.— Stone  box  culvert.  T.  B.— Trestle  bridge. 

S.  A.— Stone  arch  culvert.  H.  T.— Howe  truss. 

£'  £•— Tile  culvert  pipe.  C.  T.— Combination  truss. 

S  K-~£vSt^lv<?rt  pipe>  L  T.-Iron  truss. 

**•  £--*"md  drain-  D.  S.— Draw  span. 

W.  C.— Wall  culvert.  p.  G.— Plate  girder. 


APPENDIX  L.  651 

ERECTION  OF  STEEL  BRIDGES. 

General.— Engineers,  inspectors  and  contractors  are  ex- 
pected to  make  themselves  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
general  and  special  specifications  governing  the  work. 

All  material  received  must  be  carefully  checked,  recorded 
and  reported  immediately  upon  receipt  of  same,  in  accordance 
with  the  rules.  Shortages  should  be  reported  immediately. 
Material  received  should  be  checked  against  complete  bill  of 
material,  and  every  effort  made  to  avoid  delay  to  the  progress 
of  the  work,  by  failure  to  receive  material,  including  false 
work,  tools,  etc.,  etc. 

The  engineer  in  charge  must  cause  to  be  kept  an  accurate 
record  of  the  cost  of  the  work,  including  material  and  labor, 
keeping  separately  each  class  of  work,  such  as  rigging  up,  un- 
loading, repairing,  raising,  fitting,  riveting,  cleaning,  paint- 
ing, framing,  bolting,  contractors'  pay  roll,  character  of  plant, 
framing  and  erecting  false  work,  and  removal  of  same.  A 
diary  must  be  kept  containing  dates  of  commencing  and  com- 
pleting different  classes  of  work,  and  all  other  general  infor- 
mation of  value.  A  record,  or  copies  of  all  orders,  or  instruc- 
tions, issued  or  received  during  the  progress  of  the  work, 
and  the  daily  force  account  should  also  be  kept. 

The  engineer  in  charge  must  check  all  distances  and  eleva- 
tions on  plans,  before  laying  out  the  work,  and  will  be  held 
responsible  for  any  errors  that  may  arise,  through  neglect  on 
the  part  of  himself  or  assistants,  properly  to  verify  and  re- 
check,  plans,  points  and  elevations,  given  for  the  erection  of 
the  structure.  Distances  between  centers  and  elevations  of 
finished  tops  of  masonry  are  especially  important,  and  should 
be  rechecked  as  often  as  may  be  necessary  in  order  abso- 
lutely to  insure  against  errors.  The  sum  of  the  heights  of 
the  component  parts  forming  the  structure  should  be  care- 
fully checked  against  the  total  finished  height,  above  assumed 
datum,  to  base  of  rail.  The  sum  of  all  detail  lengths  must  also 
be  checked,  with  equal  care,  against  the  total  length  from  the 
fixed  initial  point. 

Insure  that  the  material  shall  not  be  injured,  nor  dangerous- 
ly strained  during  the  operation  of  loading,  unloading  or 
handling  same.  All  defects  in  workmanship  or  material  must 
be  remedied  as  soon  as  detected.  A  thorough  inspection  must 
be  made  for  defects  in  painting,  cleaning,  reaming,  spots  of 


652  APPENDIX  L. 

shrivelled  oil  or  paint,  chips,  burrs,  sharp  edges  and  black  or 
rusty  spot's  on  steel,  scale,  cinders  and  scratches,  particularly 
in  joints  and  around  rivet  heads,  brush  hairs,  or  other  foreign 
matter  covered  over  with  paint  or  oil;  all  such  defects  shall 
be  remedied  immediately,  and  noted  in  detail,  to  provide  full 
information,  is  case  of  claims  for  extra  compensation. 

Slight  bends  in  members  shall  not  be  straightened  unless 
strictly  necessary,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  overstraining 
connections  and  rivets.  Connection  plates,  if  slightly  bent  or 
twisted,  shall  be  straightened  cold;  if  bent  so  sharply  as  to 
require  heating,  the  whole  piece  thus  heated  shall  be  subse- 
quently annealed.  All  shop  rivets,  or  any  piece  of  member 
thus  straightened,  shall  be  properly  tested. 

Particular  care  will  be  taken  to  insure  free  expansion  and 
contraction,  wherever  provided  for  in  plans.  Any  departure 
in  dimensions,  amount  of  camber  or  otherwise,  of  material 
received,  from  plans  and  specifications,  must  be  noted  and 
reported  immediately. 

All  machine-fitted  bolts  shall  be  perfectly  tight,  and  should 
be  burred  or  otherwise  checked  to  prevent  nuts  from  becoming 
loose,  and  no  unfilled  rivet  or  bolt  holes  should  be  left  in  any 
part  of  the  structure. 

Fitting  and  Chipping. — The  material  must  be  assembled  in 
accordance  with  the  match  marks,  and  no  interchange  of 
pieces  must  be  made,  unless  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to 
avoid  chipping  and  fitting,  or  serious  delay. 

Fitting  and  riveting  of  connections  (especially  angles)  in 
cases  where  pieces  are  short  or  full,  must  be  done  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  metal  is  not  unduly  strained  or  cracks  caused. 

Dishonest  or  incompetent  workmen  frequently  fill  cracks 
with  paint,  putty,  cinders,  dirt,  oil  or  filings,  for  the  purpose 
of  deception.  A  close  inspection  must  be  made  for  this. 

Wooden  rams  or  malls  must  be  used  in  forcing  members 
to  position,  in  order  to  protect  metal  from  injury  or  shocks. 

Chipping  of  rivets,  angle  flanges  and  edges  of  plates,  must 
be  done  without  breaking  out  metal.  Chipped  edges  must 
be  finished  off  with  a  file,  and  all  concave  corners  must  be 
rounded  off.  Chipping  with  a  sledge  will  only  be  permitted 
in  exceptional  cases,  and  must  be  done  without  leaving  frac- 
tured edges. 


APPENDIX  L.  653 

Riveting. — In  driving  rivets  the  dolly  and  die  should  be 
placed  directly  opposite  each  other,  at  right  angles  to  the 
riveted  surface,  to  insure  straight  driving.  Rivets  must  be 
driven  while  at  an  orange  heat,  and  no  burnt  rivets  should 
be  used. 

After  riveting  each  rivet  must  be  tapped  with  a  hammer 
to  insure  that  they  are  tight,  and  the  heads  must  be  well 
formed,  concentric  with  center  of  rivet,  and  closely  fitted 
against  the  riveted  surface. 

Defective  rivets  can  usually  be  detected  by  their  color,  or 
by  sound  when  tapped  with  a  hammer,  and  all  loose  or  burnt 
rivets  must  be  immediately  cut  out  and  replaced. 

In  cutting  out  rivets  be  careful  to  ascertain  that  other 
rivets  in  proximity  have  not  been  loosened. 

Tightening  up,  recupping  or  calking  old  rivets  will  not  be 
tolerated,  except  that  occasional  recupping  of  shop  rivets  do 
not  form  part  of  important  connections,  or  do  not  directly 
transmit  stresses. 

Countersunk  rivets  must  be  inspected  after  chipping  heads, 
and  no  unnecessary  chipping  should  be  permitted. 

Painting. — The  specifications  under  the  head  of  cleaning, 
oiling  and  painting  must  be  strictly  carried  out. 

An  accurate  account  should  be  kept  of  the  quantities  and 
proportions  used,  of  pigments,  oils  and  other  ingredients, 
and  the  quantities  by  weight  or  fluid  measure,  of  the  resulting 
mixtures,  ascertained.  A  record  should  be  kept  of  the  quan- 
tity of  paint  applied,  of  each  coat,  and  its  proportion  ascer- 
tained to  area  or  weight  of  material  covered. 

Paint  should  be  thoroughly  worked  in  all  corners  and 
joints,  and  narrow  openings,  covering  edges  and  sealing  up 
all  lines  of  contact  between  parts. 

Unless  otherwise  specified,  the  ingredients  and  proportions 
of  the  mixture,  for  the  three  coats,  shall  be  as  follows: 

First  Coat. — 30  Ibs.  pure  lead  to  1  gallon  pure  boiled  lin- 
seed oil,  1-3  pint  pure  turpentine. 

Second  Coat— 25  Ibs.  pure  lead  to  1  gallon  pure  boiled  lin- 
seed oil,  i/4  pint  pure  turpentine,  lampblack,  quantity  not  to 
exceed  12  ounces. 

Third  Coat. — 15  Ibs,  dry  pigment,  Cleveland  Ironclad,  purple 
band  No.  3,  to  1  gallon  of  pure  boiled  linseed  oil. 


654 


APPENDIX  L. 


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INDEX. 

Abutments 127 

Angle  Bars,  Number  Required  for  One  Mile  of  Track 563 

Ashpits 284 

Ballast 155,  163 

Ballasting 332,  603,  604,  605 

Base  plates,  Number  Required  for  One  Mile  of  Track 563 

Bolts,  Number  Required  for  One  Mile  Track 563,  616 

"      Number  of  Per  Keg 618 

"      Track , 221 

"      Weight  of  Per  Thousand 618 

Bolting 357,  600 

Borrowpits 95,  133 

Bridges 2 4,  242 

Bridges,  Detailed  Rules  Governing 644 

"        Maintenance  of 455 

Bridging  Timber 134 

Buildings  273,  425 

"         Detailed  Rules  Governing 644 

Burnt  Clay  Ballast 168 

Buildings,  Maintenance  of 455 

Bumping  Posts 241 

Camp  Party 67     •* 

Cattleguards 294 

Cinder  Ballast 172 

Clearing  Right  of  Way 394 

Coaling 267 

Commissary  Party 67 

Construction 90 

Accounts 477 

Authorities  on  629 

Detailed  Rules  Governing 583 

Material  Used  in 597 

Standards  of 147 

Controlling  Points 151 

Crossings . .  .  .  389,  608 

Crossovers 308 

Culverts 123,  133,  254 

"        Detailed  Rules  Governing 644 

Curves,  Elevation  of  Rails  on 601,  626 

**        Widening  Gauge  on  625 

Cuts 92,  106,  150 


INDEX.  657 


Depots 276 

Erection  of 145 

Development  of  Railway 21 

Ditches 154,  869,  607 

Drainage 120,  153,  356 

Draughtsmen 67 

Engineer,  Assistant 91 

Division 90 

Engineers,  Locating 47 

Embankments 92,  103,  112,  118,  122,  369 

Explosives — Use  of Ill 

Estimates— Monthly , 130 

Evolution  of  Railway 21 

Excavation 92,  106 

Facilities — Effect  of  on  Cost  of  Operation 524 

Fences 291 ,  392 

Field  Supplies 583 

Fills 100,  150 

Foremen 331 

Frogs 227,  303,  376,  603 

"     —Early  Forms  of 39 

Fuel  Supply 145 

Gauge.   148,  607 

Gauges  Used  in  Different  Countries 562 

Grade— Surfacing 129 

Gravel  Ballast 170 

Hand  Cars 355 

Joint,  Ties 189 

Joints,  Introduction 19,  606 

41      Early  Forms  of 33 

««      Rail 190,  216 

Leveling  Party 63 

Lining. 357 

Location 83 

"      Authorities  on 629 

"      Detailed  Rules  Governing 565 

Locating  Party •  •     83 

Locating  Railways 47,  83 

Locomotives,  Curves  Showing  Horse  Power  of 575 

Increase  in  Weight  of— 1880  to  1900 564 

Locomotive,  Invention  of 24 

Lubricants,  Effect  of  Quality  of 499 

Maintenance  Accounts 477 

Authorities  on 629 

—Cost  of 480 

—Fixed  Operating  Expenses 510 

-Force 324 

ofWay 322 

Relation  of  Various  Classes  to  Total  Cost  of . .  560 


658  INDEX. 

Maintenance  —Rules  Governing 328 

Things  that  Affect 530 

Material — Classification  of 131 

"        Effect  of  Quality  of 495 

Old .  427 

"         Standards  of 147 

Middle  Ordinates,  Table  of 627 

Narrow  Gauge  Sections 151 

Nutlocks 222 

"        Number  Required  for  One  Mile  of  Track 563 

Overhaul 132 

Operation— Cost  of 480,  524 

Operating,  Cost  of — Percentage  Due  to  Maintenance  of  Or- 
ganization and  the  Prevention  of  the  Destruction  of  the 

Property  From  Natural  Causes 561 

Operating  Expenses,  Fixed 510 

Openings — Size  of , 94 

Ordinates  Middle,  Table  of 627 

Piles,  Life  of  Different  Kinds  of 654 

Piling 134 

Piers 127 

Policing : 608 

Preliminary — Survey 58 

Pumps,  Capacity  of 620 

Water 262 

Rail  Braces 223,  603 

Fastenings 216 

Expansion  Number  for  Rails  per  Ton 617 

Section 609 

Rals 200 

Changing 416 

Creeping 384 

Curving 598 

Dimensions  of 609,  610 

Distributing 598 

Early  Supports  of 28 

Early  Forms  of 22 

Effect  of  Quality  of , 495 

— Elevation  of,  on  Curves 318 

Expansion  of 387,  619 

Filing 418 

Jointing 419 

Number  Required  to  Lay  One  Mile  of  Track 563 

Placing  in  Track 598 

Tons  Used  per  Mile  and  Feet , 616 

Unloading 417 

Reconnoissance 47 

Resistance,  Train 580 

Retaining  Walls „ 119,  121 


INDEX.  G59 

Right  of  Way— Clearing 95 

Roadbed 153,  597,  605 

Roundhouses 283 

Routes— Locating  55 

Sand  Ballast 173 

Sand  Houses 284 

Scales,  Track 296 

Scrap 427 

Season's  Work 412 

Shimming , 390 

Sidings 607 

Signs 389 

Signals 287 

• '       Switch 239 

Side  Tracks 144 

Slag  Ballast 166 

Snow  Fences , 400 

•«      Plows 405,  410 

"      Removing 399 

Spikes 215 

'  •      Number  Required  for  One  Mile  Track 563,  617 

Spiking 357,  601 

Splice  Bars,  Number  for  One  Mile  Track 616 

Stations 425 

Coaling 267 

"        — Erection  of 145 

Stakes,  Engineers1 — Care  of 420 

Stock  Pens 281 

"    Yards 281 

Stone  Ballast 164 

Storehouses 283 

Structures 147 

Supervisors 328,  330 

Supplies,  Field 583 

Surfacing 144,  359 

Survey — Preliminary 58 

Surveys,  Detailed  Rules  Governing , 583 

Switches 225,  303,  370,  603,  607 

1  *       —Early  Forms  of 39 

Data  for 623,  625 

Switch  Stands 235 

Switches,  Ties  Required  for 621,  622,  624 

Tamping 360,  603 

Tanks,  T rack 266 

Targets 239 

Taxes 

Terminals,  Effect  of  Cost  of —  500 

Ties 174,  598,  605 

"    Bearing  Surface  on  Ballast 628 

11     Effect  of  Quality  of 497 

"    Metal  .  191 


660  INDEX. 

Ties,  Number  of  to  Rail 323 

Number  Required  for  One  Mile  of  Track 563 

Number  Required  for  Switches 621,  622,  624 

Renewals  of 363 

Size  of 188 

Specifications  for 608 

Spacing 189 

Wood— Life  of 177 

Wood— Preservation  of 179 

Tie  Plates 1 96,  602 

41        "    Number  Required  for  One  Mile  of  Track 563 

Timber,  Bridging 134 

Decay  of 176 

"        Life  of  Different  Kinds  of 655 

Topographical  Party 65 

Tools,  Track 338< 

Track,  Authorities  on 629 

"      Bolting ,  357 

Constructing 297 

"      Construction  of — Detailed  Rules  Governing 597 

"      Drainage 356 

—Early  Method  of  Constructing 32 

11      Expenses,  Relation  of  Various  Items  to  the  Whole. . .  559 

"      Inspecting 431 

"      Labor,  Relation  of  Various  Items  to  Each  Other 559 

Tracklaying 134 

Machines , 137 

Track,  Lining 357 

*      — Moving  During  Week 422 

Old— Moving , 419 

— Moving  on  Sunday 421 

—Policing 423 

— Preparing  for  Sunday  Work 420 

Train  Resistance , 580 

Track  Scales 296 

44      Shimming 390 

"      Spiking 357 

41      Sprinkling 388 

"      Surfacing , 359 

"      Tamping 360 

Tracks,  Team 286 

Transit  Party 61 

Tunnels , ...113,  159 

Turntables 270 

Velocity  Grades,  Length  of 578 

Water  Supply , 144 

"      Supplies 259 

Way,  Maintenance  of . 322 

Wrecks 441 

Wood  for  Ties..  .  174 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS 

BY  MARSHALL  M.  KIRKMAN. 


SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS"  DESCRIBES  THE  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  CON- 
NECTED WITH  THE  ORGANIZATION,  LOCATION,  CAPITALIZATION, 
CONSTRUCTION.  MAINTENANCE,  OPERATION  AND 
ADMINISTRATION  OP  RAILROADS. 


IN  TWELVE  VOLUMES,  COMPRISING  BOOKS  ON 

Railway  Equipment.  Fiscal  Affairs;  Collection  of  Revenue. 

Railway  Organization.  Fiscal  Duties  of  Agents  and  Cou- 

F£taSSgl  ConStmCting  and   Main'  Principles  Governing  Collection 

of  Revenue. 

1  ram  Service.  General  Fiscal  Affairs. 

Passenger,  Baggage,  Ex  press  and  Mail  General  Fiscal  Affairs  and  Sta- 

Service.  tistics. 

Freight  Business  and  Affairs.  Payment  of  Employes  of  Rail 

Disbursements  of  Railways.  Tw2nSUT««  n<fir>P 

*       Economical  Purchase,  Care  and  Thp  RpTlpf  Dpnartmpnt  of  Rail 

Use  of  Material.  roads 

Fiscal  Affairs;  Expenditures.  Origin  and  Evo^t^  of  Transporta- 

Economic  Theory  of  Rates;   Private  tion. 

versus  Government  Control  of  Rail-  Engineers' and  Firemen's  Manual- 
roads.  General  Index. 

"Officers  and  employes  of  railway  companies  and  the  students  of  this 
form  of  transportation  owe  you  much.  ..."  MARVIN  HUGHITT,  President 
Chicago  and  North-Western  Railway. 

"  To  railroad  men,  whose  duties  so  frequently  run  in  a  giwve,  they  afford 
most  useful  information  that  could  not  otherwise  be  obtained,  and  they 
suggest  improved  methods  that  must  be  highly  beneficial  to  railway  manage- 
ment."—C.  C.  HARVEY,  President  New  Orleans  and  North-Eastern  Railroad. 

'"The  Science  of  Railways'  shows  a  work  of  labor  and  thought.  The 
subject  is  treated  as  none  but  a  practical  railroad  man  could  treat  it.  The 
illustrations  showing  the  modes  of  transportation  from  the  primitive  days  to 
the  present  time  are  necessarily  quaint  and  instructive.  His  delineations  of 
character  required  to  make  a  good  and  efficient  railway  officer  are  clear  and 
pointed.  His  reference  to  the  construction  of  railways,  operation,  mainte- 
nance of  roadway  and  rolling  stock  are  discussed  with  a  clear  head  and  hold 
the  reader's  attention.  It  is  a  work  that  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every 
railroad  man,  young  and  old.  There  is  something  in  every  volume  interest- 
ing and  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  wants  of  young  and  ambitious  railroad  men, 
and  it  should  be  in  the  hands  of  those  employes  whose  aim  is  advancement." 
—JOHN  M.  TOUCEY,  General  Manager  New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River 
Railroad  Company. 

"A  curriculum  eminently  adapted  for  the  employe  in  any  sphere  of  labor. 
It  is  of  inestimable  value  as  a  book  of  reference."— ROBERT  DUDGEON,  Super- 
intendent Minnesota  Transfer  Railway  Company. 

"I  hope  your  work  may  be  spread  wide  amongst  railroad  men  as  well  as 
investors."— J.  L.  TEN  HAVE,  Frzn,  Capitalist,  Amsterdam,  Holland. 

"Written  with  a  grace  and  facility  of  diction  which  fairly  entitle  them  to 
be  received  as  literature  of  the  first  class."— Noah's  Sunday  Time*. 

"The  author's  long  experience,  his  great  opportunities  for  acquiring 
accurate  knowledge,  his  careful  and  thorough  study  of  railway  administra- 
tion, make  his  books  authoritative,  studious,  thoughtful  and  enlightened."-- 
Chicago  Evening  Journal. 

PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  WORLD  KAIL  WAY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
CHICAGO,   ILL. 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS 

BY  MARSHALL  M.  KIRKMAN. 

•THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS"  DESCRIBES  THE  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  CON- 
NECTED WITH  THE  ORGANIZATION,  LOCATION,  CAPITALIZATION. 
CONSTRUCTION.  MAINTENANCE,  OPERATION  AND 
ADMINISTRATION  OF  RAILROADS. 


IN  TWELVE  VOLUMES,  COMPRISING  BOOKS  ON 

rtanway  Equipment.  Fiscal  Affairs ;  Collection  of  Revenue. 

Railway  Organization.  FdSctors  ^  °f  AgeutS  a"(1  C°u" 

Constructing,  Financing  and  Main-  Principles  Governing  Collection 

taming.  of  Revenue. 

Financing.  General  Fiscal  Affairs. 

Constructing  and  Maintaining.  General  Fiscal  Affairs  and  Sta- 

Train  Service.  tistics. 

Passenger,  Baggage  and  Mail  Service.  ^oad?1  °f  Employes  °f  Kall~ 
Freight  Business  and  Affairs.  Treasurer's  Office. 
Disbursements  of  Railways.  The  Relief  Department  of  Rail- 
Economical  Purchase,  Care  and  roads. 

Use  of  Material.  Origin  and  Evolution  of  Transcorta- 

Fiscal  Affairs;  Expenditures.  .  tion. 

Economic  Theory  of  Rates.  Engineers'  and  Firemen's  Manual- 
General  Index. 

"The  titles  of  the  several  volumes  will  show  the  extent  of  the  ground  cov- 
ered. The  merit  of  the  work  will  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  product 
of  an  expert  in  active  railway  service." — ALDACE  F.  WALKER,  Chairman  of 
Board  of  Directors,  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railway. 

"I  find  the  books  most  interesting.  It  is  a  work  that  ought  to  be  in  the 
library  of  every  railroad  man.  My  wonder  is,  how  the  author,  with  all  his 
business,  could  find  time  and  courage  to  write  and  publish  such  a  complete 
and  elaborate  work.  He  is  certainly  entitled  to  very  great  credit  for  it,  as  well 
as  the  thanks  of  all  practical  railroad  men."— AUSTIN  CORBIN,  late  President, 
Long  Island  Railroad  Company. 

"The  books  are  the  recognized  standard  on  the  subjects  treated  of  in  this 
country." — JAMES  McCREA,  Vice-President,  Pennsylvania  Company. 

"These  books  are  of  great  value  to  railway  employes  and  to  investors  and 
others  interested  in  railway  properties.  "—WILLIAM  H.  NEWMAN,  Vice-President, 
Great  Northern  Railway  Company. 

"Of  high  educational  value,  because  of  the  interest  excited  from  the  out- 
set in  a  subject  of  paramount  importance  to  civilized  man.  .  .  .  The  illus- 
trations are  impressive  object  lessons.  The  varied  subjects  discussed  are 
treated  in  a  most  interesting  and  instructive  way,  and  cannot  fail  to  leave  a 
deep  and  lasting  impression  on  all  thoughtful  readers." — J.  C.  WELLING,  Vice- 
President,  Illinois  Central  Railroad. 

"The  work  is  a  remarkable  one,  very  interesting  and  valuable  to  railway 
men,  and  students  generally.  It  contains  information  that  has  not  been  com- 
piled heretofore,  together  with  the  practical  ideas  of  a  practical  railway  man 
applied  to  current  operations  of  railroads.  I  commend  the  work  most  highly." 
— C.  G.  WARNER,  Vice-President,  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad. 

"No  young  man  in  the  railroad  service,  with  the  intention  of  pursuing 
that  branch  of  commerce  as  a  profession,  can  better  equip  himself  than  by  a 
patient  and  careful  reading  of  these  volumes.  I  think  Mr.  Kirkman  has  ren- 
dered the  profession  and  the  public  a  valuable  service  by  producing  this 
work."— J.  C.  STUBBS,  Third  Vice-President,  Southern  Pacific  Company. 

"  Should  be  read  by  every  man  who  is  interested  in  railway  affairs,  and  by 
those  employes  who  intend  to  make  railroading  their  life  work,  and  who  are 
ambitious  for  advancement  therein.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  to  some,  these 
books,  instead  of  being  dry  and  tiresome  reading,  are  as  interesting  as  classical 
works  of  fiction:  yet,  at  tire  same  time,  the  knowledge  derived  from  their 
perusal  is  of  incalculable  value— not  alone  to  railroad  men,  but  to  all  who  are 
studiously  inclined."— THEO.  Low,  Superintendent,  Norfolk  &  Western  Rail- 
way. 

'"It  is  equally  valuable  to  the  general  reader  and  to  the  railroad  man.  It 
is  a  vast  storehouse  of  information  in  relation  to  the  history,  construction  and 
operation  of  railroads  and  the  duties  and  obligations  of  railroad  companies  as 
common  carriers."— HENRY  C.  CALDWELL,  United  States  Circuit  Judge. 

'Mr.  Kirkman  has  won  very  high  distinction  as  an  expert  and  reliable 
autnoritv  in  railway  management. "-Report  of  Government  Directors,  Union, 
Pacific  Railway. 

PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  WORLD  RAILWAY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 

•350) 


THE  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS 

BY  MARSHALL  M.  KIRKMAN. 

••  THE  SCIENCE  op  RAILWAYS  "  DESCRIBES  THE  METHODS  AND  PRINCIPLES  CON- 
NECTED WITH  THE  ORGANIZATION,  LOCATION,  CAPITALIZATION, 
CONSTRUCTION,  MAINTENANCE,  OPERATION  AND 
ADMINISTRATION  OP  RAILROADS. 


IN  TWELVE  VOLUMES,  COMPRISING  BOOKS  ON 

Railway  Equipment.  Fiscal  Affairs;  Collection  of  Revenue. 

Railway  Organization.  Principles  Governing  Collection 

P£lnlnSgf  C°nSlrUCting  and   Main'  Fiscal  DuSof  Agents  and  Con- 

ductors. 

Tram  Service.  General  Fiscal  Affairs. 

Passenger,  Baggage,  Express  and  Mail  General  Fiscal  Affairs  and  Sta- 

Service.  tistics. 

Freight  Business  and  Affairs.  Payment  of  Employes  of  Rail- 
Disbursements  of  Railways. 


The  ReHef  Department  of  Rail- 

Fiscal  Affairs;  Expenditures.  Origin  aSd  Evolution  of  Transporta- 

Economic  Theory  of  Rates;  Private          tion. 

versus  Government  Control  of  Rail-       Engineers'  and  Firemen's  Manual- 

General  Index. 


"  Replete  with  valuable  information  and  suggestions  pertaining  to  the 
construction,  operation  and  maintenance  of  railroads.  The  author's  large 
experience  in  the  service  has  eminently  qualified  him  for  the  authorship  of 
these  practical  and  didactic  volumes.''—  GEORGE  W.  PARKER,  President  and 
General  Manager,  St.  Louis,  Alton  &  Terre  Haute  Railroad  Company. 

"  An  able  and  interesting  work.  .  .  .  I  am  not  at  all  surprised  at  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  work  has  been  done,  coming  from  the  pen  of 
Mr.  Kirkman,  as  it  is  only  in  harmony  with  the  completeness  manifested  in 
all  his  efforts  and  in  all  he  does."—  A.  N.  TOWNE,  late  Vice-President  and 
General  Manager,  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Company. 

"  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  Mr.  Kirkman's  works  will  find  not  only  a  place  in 
the  library  of  every  railroad  man  who  wishes  to  be  well  informed  in  connec- 
tion with  his  business,  but  will  also  reach  the  general  public.  Mr.  Kirkman's 
long  connection  with  railway  service  eminently  constitutes  him  an  authority 
on  such  subjects.  I  hope  'The  Science  of  Railways'  will  meet  with  a  wide- 
spread circulation."—  J.  M.  WHITMAN,  General  Manager,  Chicago  &  North- 
Western  Railway. 

"  The  work  .  .  .  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  progressive  young 
man  in  the  railway  service.  Each  volume  treats  fully  and  completely  its 
subject,  and  the  work  as  a  whole  is  an  encyclopedia  of  railway  methods  and 
principles."—  GEORGE  A.  COE,  Superintendent,  Chicago  &  Erie  Railroad. 

"  A  great  work,  clearly  and  intelligently  set  forth,  with  .  .  .  enough 
elasticity  to  make  it  perfectly  practicable  to  be  adapted  to  local  surroundings 
of  every  railroad.  .  .  .  Any  man  who  has  practical  knowledge  sufficient 
to  handle  any  part  of  a  railroad  system  can  work  in  harmony  with  it."  .  .  . 
—A.  A.  SHARP,  Superintendent,  Yazoo  &  Mississippi  Valley  Railroad. 

"The  author  has  had  forty  years'  experience  as  an  employe  and  executive 
officer  of  railways,  and  has  been  engaged  thirty-four  years  in  writing  this 
work.  It  embraces  the  literature  of  the  world  on  the  subject,  coupled  with 
his  own  vast  experience  and  research.  Railroad  men  have  long  recognized  the 
need  of  such  a  work.  While  it  treats  of  specific  things,  it  does  not  reflect  the 
methods  of  any  particular  property  or  country.  It  portrays  truly  and  vividly 
the  principles  and  practices  of  the  great  art  of  transportation,  under  the  gen- 
eral head  of  '  The  Science  of  Railways.'  Representative  railroad  men,  with- 

earch and 
'  Journal 


.  , 

out  distinction,  commend  the  work  for  its  thoroughness,  vast  research  and 
impartial  representation."—  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers'  Jou 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  WOBLD  RAILWAY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


L  "  W9/  5  9 

RECEIVED 

OCT  1  4  *F7  -o  P 

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RECv 

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APR  1  0  1970 

FEB  28  197% 

1    L*Lf    •'•W  ••i^rf-^rar 

IPSr  CH       FEB  1  0  7  1 

LD  2TA-60*. 
(H241slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


YC  13161 


,. 


7276 


